Concluding Remarks
Author: J. J. Polak1
  • 1 0000000404811396https://isni.org/isni/0000000404811396International Monetary Fund

I WOULD LIKE to respond to a question posed by the Managing Director in his opening remarks as to why the Fund has found it so difficult to make pronouncements on the exchange rates of major currencies. Some ten years ago the Fund did not hesitate to make such a pronouncement. For example, in August 1971 the staff felt sure enough of its ground to propose a new set of exchange rates. In the event, the rates proposed proved wrong: the changes were too small and did not produce enough adjustment. There was, however, a rather comforting explanation: it was not that the Fund’s model was wrong but that the size of the 1971 disequilibrium had been seriously underestimated. In the mid-1970s, the Fund staff started to calculate “underlying balances” for the major countries—i.e., balances that would materialize over the medium term with present exchange rates and at reasonably high levels of activity in all countries. The exercise proved generally right in predicting the fall in the deutsche mark/dollar rate from 1976 to September 1978 and it also correctly suggested that the further sharp fall of the dollar in October 1978 went too far. But the model was never good at predicting what would happen to the yen, and it broke down for the dollar in 1980. Since then, interest rates have been so dominant and so volatile over so long a time, with such wide-ranging effects, and with so much bandwagon riding in both the capital and the foreign exchange markets, that the kind of medium-term analysis in which the Fund had engaged has become largely irrelevant to what happens in exchange markets for the short term and also to what can be made to happen through, for example, intervention or any policy of bands or target zones.

Abstract

I WOULD LIKE to respond to a question posed by the Managing Director in his opening remarks as to why the Fund has found it so difficult to make pronouncements on the exchange rates of major currencies. Some ten years ago the Fund did not hesitate to make such a pronouncement. For example, in August 1971 the staff felt sure enough of its ground to propose a new set of exchange rates. In the event, the rates proposed proved wrong: the changes were too small and did not produce enough adjustment. There was, however, a rather comforting explanation: it was not that the Fund’s model was wrong but that the size of the 1971 disequilibrium had been seriously underestimated. In the mid-1970s, the Fund staff started to calculate “underlying balances” for the major countries—i.e., balances that would materialize over the medium term with present exchange rates and at reasonably high levels of activity in all countries. The exercise proved generally right in predicting the fall in the deutsche mark/dollar rate from 1976 to September 1978 and it also correctly suggested that the further sharp fall of the dollar in October 1978 went too far. But the model was never good at predicting what would happen to the yen, and it broke down for the dollar in 1980. Since then, interest rates have been so dominant and so volatile over so long a time, with such wide-ranging effects, and with so much bandwagon riding in both the capital and the foreign exchange markets, that the kind of medium-term analysis in which the Fund had engaged has become largely irrelevant to what happens in exchange markets for the short term and also to what can be made to happen through, for example, intervention or any policy of bands or target zones.

I WOULD LIKE to respond to a question posed by the Managing Director in his opening remarks as to why the Fund has found it so difficult to make pronouncements on the exchange rates of major currencies. Some ten years ago the Fund did not hesitate to make such a pronouncement. For example, in August 1971 the staff felt sure enough of its ground to propose a new set of exchange rates. In the event, the rates proposed proved wrong: the changes were too small and did not produce enough adjustment. There was, however, a rather comforting explanation: it was not that the Fund’s model was wrong but that the size of the 1971 disequilibrium had been seriously underestimated. In the mid-1970s, the Fund staff started to calculate “underlying balances” for the major countries—i.e., balances that would materialize over the medium term with present exchange rates and at reasonably high levels of activity in all countries. The exercise proved generally right in predicting the fall in the deutsche mark/dollar rate from 1976 to September 1978 and it also correctly suggested that the further sharp fall of the dollar in October 1978 went too far. But the model was never good at predicting what would happen to the yen, and it broke down for the dollar in 1980. Since then, interest rates have been so dominant and so volatile over so long a time, with such wide-ranging effects, and with so much bandwagon riding in both the capital and the foreign exchange markets, that the kind of medium-term analysis in which the Fund had engaged has become largely irrelevant to what happens in exchange markets for the short term and also to what can be made to happen through, for example, intervention or any policy of bands or target zones.

In commenting on the conference, I must confess to having a slight bias in favor of ideas in the areas of policy rather than of analysis. However, I appreciate the middle course that Mr. Branson has steered between very simple and very complicated models. By a modest addition to oversimple models, he has introduced quite realistic aspects of countries’ economic structure, such as the commodity content of imports and exports, nominal and real wage rigidity, and the presence or absence of effective financial markets. I would like to emphasize two aspects of the Branson approach. First, what may appear as structural characteristics of an economy to the economic analyst need not necessarily be considered in this way for policy purposes. It was true, for example, that full indexation of money wages and the consequential extreme stickiness of real wages were notable characteristics of the economies of many European countries. If one accepts this structural element as immutable, exchange rate policies—and also many other policies of adjustment—become totally ineffective, and any form of adjustment that presupposes the reduction of real wages is by definition impossible. The task of policy in these circumstances then becomes not one of accommodating exchange rate policy to the structure but one of changing the structure so as to make exchange rate policy effective. This indeed has been the main issue of adjustment in recent years in a number of European countries, such as Belgium, France, Ireland, Italy, and the Netherlands, and the key to successful policies in these countries.

Second, Mr. Branson has introduced financial markets as a structural difference between industrial and developing countries. However, I believe that he assumed too readily that the financial markets in the former countries are thick enough for the monetary authorities to trust private speculation to be stabilizing, and, hence, to permit reliance on floating rates. My own impression is that confidence in stabilizing capital movements has gone out of fashion in the last few years, for a number of good reasons, of which Mr. Dornbusch has briefly mentioned the prevalence of irrelevant information, the possibility of changes in the regime that encouraged speculators to hold out for a break in the system, and “bandwagon effects”—all three of which have devastating consequences for the attainment of equilibrium. Quite apart from the trust that can be put in the resilience of financial markets, there was more to structure on this point than whether countries export manufactures or primary products. There is also the need to separate the industrial countries according to their size. There has been remarkably little reference during the day to the concept of the optimum currency area, even though the comparison of the costs and benefits of floating versus fixed rates has a lot to do with the size and openness of a country. Moreover, as we become increasingly less sanguine about the stabilizing nature of speculation, the balance of benefits versus costs as a function of economic size will inevitably shift further in the direction of fixed against floating rates.

One point that has been stressed throughout the day is that, whatever their exchange rate regime, small industrial countries are inevitably exposed to the main economic events occurring in their larger neighbor countries. Should these countries try to exploit whatever freedom they have to control their own business cycle or their own interest rates by following a separate exchange rate policy? Or should they come to terms with the degree of their economic and financial dependence and opt for a fixed rate against the currency of their largest neighbor? A number of medium-sized countries seem to have come to quite different answers to this question; for example, Canada has opted for a floating rate for its currency vis-á-vis the U.S. dollar, while the Netherlands has chosen a fixed rate on the deutsche mark.

I find an absence of dogmatism in today’s presentations on fixed versus floating rates and a wide area of parallelism of findings; this is shown by the extent to which all four authors tended to dissent from Harry Johnson’s view that flexible rates are essential to the preservation of national autonomy and “independence consistent with efficient organization and development of the world economy.” Specifically, Mr. Arriazu has stressed that variations in output and employment have tended to be much larger under floating than under fixed rates, and Mr. Swoboda has observed that floating has not permitted countries to avoid riding, or rather being ridden by, the world business cycle. However, I think it is important not to forget the lesson from the 1930s, when those countries that lowered their exchange rates (such as Japan, Sweden, and the United Kingdom) did notably better in real terms than some of the other main industrial countries. This may have been because nominal depreciations in the 1930s invariably produced real effective depreciations, whereas nowadays they often do not. Or it might be another case of confusion of terminology between the general impact of floating and the specific impact of depreciation.

I hope that economists will have a clear idea of what is involved in making a comparative judgment between fixed and flexible exchange rate systems, at least in particular country situations. I must caution against a lowering of standards in making such judgments. Viability, for instance, is being treated as one criterion. The par value system is not viable in the face of severe policy conflicts, as the events of 1971 and 1973 proved. In a narrow sense, a floating rate system is viable under any circumstances. But the experience of Mexico in the last few weeks has illustrated how shallow this viability can be. I support Mr. Swoboda’s conclusion that any judgment about the merits of floating rates must be based on their success in terms of other variables, such as inflation, unemployment, cyclical stability, and adjustment. A certain lowering of standards is also visible in the European Monetary System. What else is the rejoicing about the system’s ability to survive successive realignments in disregard of the fact that it is the absence of convergent policies—that is, the failure of the European Monetary System in its basic objective—that made these realignments necessary?

I support Mr. Branson’s view that we should not look to “better policies” and “coordination” to solve all problems of international policy. Countries have some national instruments, such as the exchange rate, that give them some freedom from the effects of other countries’ policies. However, there are limits to the use of any instrument. Living as we do in a period of severe shocks, world inflation, and distortion in the income distribution, is there any point in looking for an exchange regime that will let us get through this period without very unpleasant consequences? Countries cannot escape the consequences of their own policies through their selection of an exchange rate regime.

SUMMARIES

Flexible Exchange Rates and Interdependencerudiger dornbusch (pages 3–30)

The paper reviews the channels of macroeconomic interdependence under flexible exchange rates. The model emphasizes the linkage of international capital markets, expectations, and nominal and real wage stickiness in affecting the impact of disturbances on employment, prices, and the exchange rate. The standard rational-expectations macroeconomic model is extended to facilitate analysis of the role of risk premiums created by imperfect asset substitutability. Peso problems and bubbles are discussed briefly.

In a discussion of third-country effects, the paper addresses the implications tight money has for developing countries. These countries are affected by adverse effects of increased real interest rates on their debt, by reduced real prices of their commodity exports owing to decreased demand and the real appreciation of the dollar, and by reduced demand for their manufactured exports.

The paper discusses two alternative proposals designed to deal with the exchange rate implications of policy interdependence. One is the McKinnon proposal for world monetarism; the other is the band proposal. Both proposals are rejected because they fail to cope with the problems of the transition to a low, common inflation rate. The paper concludes with the suggestion that improved performance of the world economy cannot come from a better exchange rate system but rather from a more systematic use of incomes policies.

Economic Structure and Policy for External Balancewilliam h. branson (pages 39–66)

The traditional macroeconomics of the period since World War II, as well as the more recent rational expectation and neo-Keynesian approaches, analyze one-commodity economies. The international version of this model, in its simplified extreme, is the monetary model of the balance of payments or, more recently, of the exchange rate. During the 1970s emphasis in research has shifted to the supply side and the role of structure in transmitting economic disturbances and effects of policy.

This paper discusses some of the more significant results on the role of economic structure in determining how disturbances are transmitted. It begins with an exposition of the monetary model of the balance of payments, which assumes virtually no structure. This provides a framework for the following sections, which introduce structural differences into the model, one at a time.

The basic results can be summarized briefly. First, supply rigidities or a high ratio of imported intermediate goods to value added in production can make devaluation counterproductive. This can be particularly important for a developing country considering a stabilization program. Second, the effects of changes in exchange rates may be asymmetric between Europe and the United States. Movements in the exchange rate have their main effect on trade in the United States by changing relative prices. This makes the exchange rate an efficient instrument for external adjustment in the United States. But in Europe, changes in the exchange rate may have their main effect on domestic prices, making the exchange rate a poor instrument for external balance.

Third, demand policy in countries with real wage stickiness moves the price level in those countries but influences output only in countries with nominal wage stickiness. Again, there may be a difference between Europe, with sticky real wages, and the United States, with sticky nominal wages. Finally, only countries with developed and open financial markets can expect a floating exchange rate to be stable. This may be the reason why the industrial countries tend to float, while developing countries tend to peg their exchange rates.

Exchange Rate Regimes and European-U.S. Policy Interdependence—alexander k. swoboda (Pages 75–102)

This article documents and contrasts the degree of interdependence of key macroeconomic variables across six major industrial economies (the United States, Canada, Japan, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, and the United Kingdom) over the periods 1960–71 and 1974–82. Principal components analysis is the main statistical tool employed. The findings suggest that, although trend inflation rates have indeed become more independent since the adoption of floating exchange rates, short-run (quarterly) changes in inflation, interest rates, and, especially, changes in real output growth have become significantly more interdependent in the later period. This finding holds not only for the original time series studied but also for innovations (unexpected shocks) in these series. In contrast, no very clear difference in the interdependence of policy instruments across countries appears when the two periods are compared.

The evidence lends some support to the notion of a world business cycle, on which national business cycles are superimposed and which is independent of the exchange rate regime, although the channels of transmission differ depending on the prevailing regime. In addition, a weak regional (European) pattern of interdependence appears in the data.

The paper concludes with a discussion of some implications for the choice of exchange rate regime, regional currency arrangements, and the scope for autonomy of macroeconomic policy under floating. It emphasizes the importance of credibility and precommitment of policies and concludes that flexible exchange rates, to work properly, require a set of rules that, although different from those that would apply under fixed rates, are no less constraining for national macro-economic policies.

Policy Interdependence from a Latin American Perspectivericardo h. arriazu (pages 113–52)

During 1982 most Latin American countries faced severe balance of payments and economic difficulties. The paper explores the possibility of a common exogenous origin in these crises. To evaluate this possibility, at a theoretical level, a “stereotyped” international cycle is defined on the basis of the behavior of relative prices and international interest rates, and its effects on small, semi-open economies are carefully evaluted.

The analysis is concentrated on the evaluation of the sectoral effects on the different stages of the cycle, with special emphasis on the effects upon the accounts of the public sector, the central bank, the financial system, the productive sectors (represented by producers of exportable goods, of import substituting commodities and of goods nontraded internationally), and of individuals. The balance of pyaments is then obtained as a residual of the aggregate changes resulting in the net financial wealth positions of each of these sectors.

In order to undertake these sectoral evaluations in conjunction with the usual analysis of the effects of the cycle upon such macroeconomic variables as output, employment, and prices, a method of analysis, based on the technique of inter-locking flows, was developed, with special emphasis upon equilibrium conditions rather than on behavioral assumptions, including, in addition, some special operational characteristics of Latin American countries.

The evaluation was performed under two different assumptions in relation to the exchange rate system in operation, in order to determine whether a small economy is better protected from the disturbances brought about by international economic cycles, by fixed exchange rates, or by floating exchange rates.

The results of the evaluation of the behavior of the main macroeconomic variables and of the main sectoral effects show that recent economic developments in Latin America are strikingly similar to those that could be expected, in accordance with the model, as a consequence of recent economic developments in international markets, and as such it can be asserted that most problems in the region have, at least in part, a common origin. The model also proved to be extremely useful for the analysis of sectoral effects of cycles, and some of the results, surprising as they are, contributed new insights into the understanding of recent economic performances; for example, the surprising emergence of a fiscal deficit—as an integral part of the cycle—in spite of an improvement in the terms of trade and higher levels of economic activity and employment. The model also shows that floating exchange rates tend to reduce fluctuations in nominal variables—such as prices and interest rates—better than fixed exchange rates, but tend also to amplify fluctuations in real variables such as output and employment.

RESUMES

Taux de change flexibles et interdependencerudiger dornbusch (pages 3–30)

L’étude traite des mécanismes de transmission de l’interdépendance macroéconomique en régime de taux de change flexibles. Le modèle souligne le rôle joué par le lien qui existe entre les marchés de capitaux internationaux, les anticipations et l’inflexibilité à la baisse des salaires nominaux et réels dans la transmission des perturbations économiques sur l’emploi, les prix et le taux de change. Le modèle macroéconomique type fondé sur les anticipations rationnelles est élargi de facon à faciliter l’analyse du rôle des primes de risque créées par la substituabilité imparfaite des avoirs. Les problèmes que posent le peso et les vagues d’extrême spéculation sont examinés briévement.

Abordant les effets ressentis par les pays tiers, l’auteur de l’étude examine les implications d’une politique monétaire restrictive pour les pays en développement; cette politique exerce sur eux des effets défavorables étant donné qu’elle relève les taux d’intérêt réels de leur dette, qu’elle abaisse les prix réels de leurs exportations de produits primaires du fait de l’affaiblissement de la demande et de l’appréciation réelle du dollar, et qu’elle réduit la demande portant sur leurs exportations de produits manufacturés.

L’étude examine deux propositions visant à remédier aux incidences de l’interdépendance des politiques économiques sur le système des changes. La première est celle de McKinnon, qui préconise un monétarisme mondial, et la seconde appuie l’établissement de marges de fluctuation. L’auteur rejette ces deux propositions car elles ne permettent pas, à son avis, de résoudre les problèmes que pose le passage à un taux d’inflation commun modéré. Il conclut qu’une amélioration de la performance de l’économie mondiale ne résulterait sans doute pas de l’adoption d’un meilleur système de change mais plutôt d’un recours plus systématique aux politiques de revenus.

Structure économique et politique d’équilibre extérieurwilliam h. branson (pages 39–66)

La théorie macroéconomique traditionnelle de la période qui s’est écoulée depuis la deuxiéme guerre mondiale, ainsi que celle des anticipations ration-nelles et l’approche néo-keynésienne, toutes deux d’origine plus récente, analysent les economies fondees sur un seul produit. La version internationale de ce modele, sous sa forme la plus simple, est le modele monétaire de la balance des paiements ou, plus récemment, celui du taux de change. Pendant les années 70, les recherches ont été davantage axées sur l’offre et le role de la structure de l’économie dans la transmission des perturbations économiques et des effets de la politique économique.

La présente étude analyse certains des principaux résultats concernant le rôle de la structure économique sur la façon dont les perturbations sont transmises. Elle commence par une description du modèle monétaire de la balance des paiements, qui ne pose par hypothèse pratiquement aucune structure. Cette présentation sert de cadre aux sections suivantes qui introduisent, une par une, des différences structurelles dans le modèle.

On peut résumer brièvement les principaux résultats. Premièrement, en présence de rigidités au niveau de l’offre ou d’un ratio élevé entre les biens intermédiaires importés et la valeur ajoutée à la production, la dévaluation peut aller à l’encontre des buts recherchés. Cette constatation peut être particulièrement importante pour un pays en développement qui envisage un programme de stabilisation. Deuxièmement, les effets de variations des taux de change peuvent être asymétriques en Europe et aux Etats-Unis. Aux Etats-Unis, les variations du taux de change agissent essentiellement sur le commerce en modifiant les prix relatifs. Ainsi le taux de change est un instrument efficace pour l’ajustement extérieur aux Etats-Unis mais, en Europe, les variations du taux de change pourront se faire sentir principalement sur les prix intérieurs, faisant du taux de change un piètre instrument d’équilibre extérieur.

Troisièmement, la politique de la demande dans les pays où les salaires réels sont inflexibles à la baisse fait varier le niveau des prix dans ces pays; elle n’influe sur la production que dans les pays où ce sont les salaires nominaux qui sont inflexibles à la baisse. Là encore, il y a peut-être une différence entre l’Europe, où les salaires réels sont inflexibles, et les Etats-Unis où ce sont les salaires nominaux qui sont inflexibles. Enfin, seuls les pays dotés de marchés financiers développés et ouverts peuvent s’attendre à ce qu’un taux de change flottant soit stable. C’est peut-être la raison pour laquelle les pays industrialisés tendent à pratiquer le flottement, tandis que les pays en développement ont tendance à déterminer leur taux de change par référence à d’autres monnaies.

Régimes de taux de change et interdépendance des politiques économiques en Europe et aux Etats-Unisalexander K. swoboda (pages 75–102)

A partir de données statistiques, le présent article compare le degré d’interdépendance des principales variables macroéconomiques entre six grands pays industrialisés (Etats-Unis, Canada, Japon, France, République fédérale d’Allemagne et Royaume-Uni) pendant deux périodes: 1960-71 et 1974-82. L’analyse en composantes principales est le principal outil statistique utilisé. Les résultats indiquent que si les taux tendanciels d’inflation sont effectivement devenus plus indépendants depuis l’adoption des taux de change flottants, les variations à court terme (trimestrielles) de l’inflation et des taux d’intérêt et surtout, les variations de croissance de la production réelle sont devenues nettement plus interdépendantes pendant la deuxième période. Cette constatation vaut non seulement pour les séries chronologiques initiales étudiées, mais aussi pour les éléments nouveaux (chocs imprévus) dans ces séries. En revanche, une comparaison entre les deux périodes ne fait apparaître aucune différence très nette quant à l’interdépendance des instruments de politique économique entre ces pays.

Les résultats appuient l’idée qu’il existe un cycle économique mondial auquel se superposent les cycles nationaux, et qui est indépendant du régime de change, encore que les voies de transmission de ses effets diffèrent selon le régime en vigueur. En outre, les données mettent en évidence un schéma régional (européen) d’interdépendance assez peu prononcé.

Dans la dernière section de l’article, l’auteur examine certaines implications de ses conclusions pour le choix d’un régime de change, les accords monétaires régionaux et l’autonomie des politiques macroéconomiques en régime de taux de change flottants. Il souligne l’importance de la crédibilité et de l’engagement préalable en politique économique et conclut que les taux de change flexibles exigent, pour fonctionner convenablement, un ensemble de règles qui, si elles diffèrent de celles applicables en régime de taux de change fixes, n’en sont pas moins contraignantes pour les politiques macroéconomiques nationales.

Interdépendance de la politique économique dans une perspective latino-américainericardo h. arriazu (pages 113–52)

En 1982, la plupart des pays d’Amérique latine se sont heurtés à de grave difficultés économiques et de balance des paiements. L’article examine l’hypothèse d’une cause exogène commune à ces crises. Pour évaluer cette possibilité, sur un plan théorique, un cycle international “stéréotypé” est défini sur la base du comportement des prix et des taux d’intérêt internationaux relatifs et les effets de ce comportement sur les petites économies semi-ouvertes est soigneusement étudié.

L’analyse est centrée sur l’évaluation des effets sectoriels sur les différents stades du cycle et met plus particulièrement l’accent sur les effets au niveau des comptes du secteur public, de la banque centrale, du système financier, des secteurs productifs (représentés par les producteurs de biens exportables, de produits de remplacement des importations et de biens ne faisant pas l’objet d’échanges internationaux), ainsi que des particuliers. Les données de balance des paiements sont alors obtenues en tant que résidu des variations globales qui définissent la position patrimoniale financière nette de chacun de ces secteurs.

Afin d’effectuer ces évaluations sectorielles parallèlement à l’analyse habituelle des effets cycliques sur les variables macroéconomiques telles que la production, l’emploi et les prix, une méthode d’analyse, fondée sur la technique des flux entrecroisés, a été mise au point et met tout particulièrement l’accent sur des situations d’équilibre plutôt que sur des hypothèses de comportement, et inclut, en outre, certaines caractéristiques opérationnelles particulières aux pays d’Amérique latine.

L’évaluation a été effectuée sur la base de deux hypothèses différentes en ce qui concerne le système de taux de change en vigueur, afin de déterminer si une petite économie est mieux protégée des perturbations provoquées par les cycles économiques internationaux, selon qu’il s’agit d’un système de taux de change fixes ou d’un système de taux flottants.

Les résultats de l’évaluation du comportement des principales variables macroéconomiques et des principaux effets sectoriels montrent que les événements économiques récents survenus en Amérique latine présentent une similarité surprenante avec ceux auxquels on pouvait s’attendre, d’après le modèle, à la suite de l’évolution économique récente sur les marchés internationaux; on peut dès alors affirmer que la plupart des problèmes de la région ont, au moins en partie, une origine commune. Le modèle s’est également avéré extrêmement utile pour analyser les effets sectoriels des cycles et certains résultats, pour surprenants qu’ils soient, ont apporté des éléments nouveaux contribuant à la compréhension des performances économiques récentes; par exemple, l’apparition inattendue d’un déficit budgétaire—en tant que partie intégrante du cycle—en dépit de l’amélioration des termes de l’échange et des niveaux plus élevés d’activité économique et d’emploi. Le modèle montre également que les taux de change flottants ont tendance à réduire davantage les fluctuations des variables nominales—telles que les prix et les taux d’intérêt—que les taux de change fixes, mais ont également tendance à amplifier les fluctuations des variables réelles telles que la production et l’emploi.

RESUMENES

Tipos de cambio flexibles e interdependenciarudiger dornbusch (páginas. 3–30)

En este artículo se examinan los cauces de interdependencia macroeconómica en un régimen de tipos de cambio flexibles. El modelo destaca la vinculación entre los mercados internacionales de capital, las expectativas y la inflexibilidad de los salarios nominales y reales como factor que afecta al impacto de las perturbaciones en el empleo, los precios y el tipo de cambio. Se amplía el modelo macroeconómico normal de expectativas racionales a fin de facilitar el análisis de la función de las primas de riesgo creadas por la sustituibilidad imperfecta de los activos. Se examinan brevemente los problemas de “pesos” y de “burbujas”.

En un análisis de los efectos en terceros países se hace alusión a la importancia que tiene la política de dinero escaso para los países en desarrollo. Estos países resultan afectados por los efectos adversos del alza del tipo de interés real que se les cobra por su deuda, el descenso del precio real de sus exportaciones de productos básicos debido a una menor demanda y a la apreciación real del dólar, y por una menor demanda de sus exportaciones de manufacturas.

Se examinan dos propuestas alternativas para hacer frente a la repercusión de la interdependencia de las medidas de política en el tipo de cambio. Una de ellas es la propuesta de McKinnon de un monetarismo mundial; la otra es la propuesta de bandas de fluctuación. Se rechazan ambas propuestas porque no logran resolver los problemas de la transición a una tasa de inflación baja y general. Finalmente se sugiere que el mejoramiento de la economía mundial no puede basarse en un mejor sistema de tipos de cambio sino en una aplicación más sistemática de políticas de ingresos.

Función de la estructura y política económicas en el equilibrio de los pagos—william h. branson (páginas 39–66)

La macroeconomía tradicional posterior a la segunda guerra mundial, así como los enfoques más recientes, el basado en la expectativa racional y el neokeynesiano, analizan las economías monoproductoras. La versión internacional de este modelo, simplificado al máximo, es el modelo monetario de la balanza de pagos o, más recientemente, del tipo de cambio. En la década de 1970 la investigación se orientó hacia la oferta y el papel que desempeña la estructura en la transmisión de las perturbaciones económicas y los efectos de política.

En este estudio se examinan algunos de los resultados más significativos con respecto al papel que desempeña la estructura económica en la determinación de la forma en que se transmiten las perturbaciones. Se expone al principio el modelo monetario de la balanza de pagos, que supone la ausencia prácticamente total de estructura. Esta descripción ofrece un marco de referencia para las secciones siguientes del estudio, en las cuales se incorporan una a una las diferencias estructurales en el modelo.

Los resultados básicos pueden resumirse brevemente. En primer lugar, las rigideces de la oferta o una elevada relación entre los bienes intermedios importados y el valor agregado en la producción pueden hacer que la devaluación resulte contraproducente. Esto puede tener especial importancia en el caso de un país en desarrollo que desee aplicar un programa de estabilización. En segundo lugar, los efectos de las variaciones de los tipos de cambio pueden ser asimétricos entre Europa y Estados Unidos. El efecto principal de las variaciones del tipo de cambio en el comercio exterior de Estados Unidos es la variación de los precios relativos. Esto hace del tipo de cambio un instrumento eficaz para el ajuste de los pagos en Estados Unidos. En cambio, en Europa las variaciones del tipo de cambio pueden tener su efecto principal en los precios internos, con lo cual el tipo de cambio resulta un instrumento deficiente para lograr el equilibrio de los pagos.

En tercer lugar, la política de demanda en los países con salarios reales inflexibles eleva el nivel de precios en dichos países, pero sólo influye en el producto de los países en los cuales haya inflexibilidad de los salarios nominales. También en este caso puede haber una diferencia entre Europa, con salarios reales inflexibles, y Estados Unidos, país con salarios nominales inflexibles. Finalmente, sólo los países con mercado financiero desarrollado y abierto pueden esperar que sea estable un tipo de cambio flotante. Esta podría ser la razón por la cual los países industriales tienden a poner su moneda en flotación, en tanto que los países en desarrollo tienden a vincular el tipo de cambio de sus monedas.

Régimen cambiario e interdependencia europeo-estadounidense en cuanto a sus medidas de políticaalexander k. swoboda (páginas 75–102)

En este artículo se documenta y compara el grado de interdependencia de las principales variables macroeconómicas de las seis economías industriales principales (Estados Unidos, Canadá, Japón, Francia, República Federal de Alemania y Reino Unido) en los períodos 1960–71 y 1974–82. El análisis de los componentes principales es el instrumento estadístico primordialmente empleado en este trabajo. Las conclusiones indican que, si bien las tasas de inflación básicas se han hecho más independientes a partir de la adopción de tipos de cambio flotantes, las variaciones a corto plazo (trimestrales) de la inflación, de los tipos de interés y, sobre todo, del crecimiento del producto real, se han hecho mucho más interdependientes en los últimos tiempos. Se llega a esta conclusión no sólo en el caso de las series cronológicas originales estudiadas, sino también en el de innovaciones (choques inesperados) de dichas series. En cambio, cuando se comparan los dos períodos no aparece una diferencia muy clara en la interdependencia de los instrumentos de política en los distintos países.

Los datos corroboran en cierta medida la noción de un ciclo económico mundial al cual se superponen los ciclos económicos nacionales y que es independiente del régimen cambiario, aunque los mecanismos de transmisión difieran de un régimen a otro. Además, aparece en los datos una tenue interdependencia regional (europea).

Concluye el artículo con un examen de algunas de las consecuencias en cuanto a la selección de un régimen cambiario, de regímenes monetarios regionales y el ámbito de autonomía de la política macroeconómica en un régimen de flotación. Se hace hincapié en la importancia de la credibilidad y la determinación previa de las políticas y se llega a la conclusión de que los tipos de cambio flexibles requieren, para funcionar adecuadamente, un conjunto de normas que, si bien han de ser diferentes de las que se aplicarían en un contexto de tipos de cambio fijos, no son por ello menos restrictivas en lo que a las políticas macroeconómicas se refiere.

Interdependencia de las políticas económicas de los países latinoamericanosricardo h. arriazu (páginas 113–52)

En 1982 la mayoría de los países latinoamericanos tuvieron serias dificultades económicas y de balanza de pagos. En el artículo se estudia la posibilidad de un origen exógeno común de estas crisis. Para evaluar esta posibilidad a un nivel teórico, se define un ciclo internacional “estereotipado” basado en el comportamiento de los precios relativos y los tipos de interés internacionales, midiéndose cuidadosamente sus efectos sobre economías de reducida magnitud y semiabiertas.

Se centra el análisis en la evaluación de los efectos sectoriales que producen las diferentes fases del ciclo, con atención especial a los efectos sobre las cuentas del sector público, el banco central, el sistema financiero, los sectores productivos (representados por los productores de bienes exportables, de productos de sustitutivos de las importaciones y de bienes que no son objeto de comercio internacional) y a personas. Se obtiene después la balanza de pagos como valor residual de las variaciones agregadas que dan por resultado las posiciones netas de riqueza financiera de cada uno de estos sectores.

Con el fin de abordar estas evaluaciones sectoriales de forma conjunta con el análisis habitual de los efectos del ciclo en variables macroeconómicas como la producción, el empleo y los precios, se elaboró un método de análisis, basado en la técnica de los flujos intervinculados, prestándose especial atención a las condiciones de equilibrio más bien que a los supuestos de comportamiento, incluidas además algunas características operativas especiales de los países latinoamericanos.

Se efectuó la evaluación bajo dos supuestos diferentes en relación con el sistema cambiario en vigor, a fin de determinar si una economía de magnitud reducida está más protegida contra las perturbaciones causadas por los ciclos económicos internacionales mediante tipos de cambio fijos o tipos de cambio flotantes.

Los resultados de la evaluación del comportamiento de las principales variables macroeconómicas y de los efectos sectoriales principales indican que la evolución económica reciente-en la América Latina es sorprendentemente similar a la que cabría esperar, de acuerdo con el modelo, como consecuencia de la evolución reciente de los mercados internacionales y que por lo tanto puede afirmarse que la mayoría de los problemas de la región tienen, al menos en parte, un origen común. El modelo resultó también sumamente útil para analizar los efectos sectoriales de los ciclos y algunos de los resultados, aunque sorprendentes, contribuyeron a comprender mejor el comportamiento económico de estos últimos años; por ejemplo, la aparición inesperada de un déficit fiscal—como parte integral del ciclo—a pesar de una mejora de la relación de intercambio y de niveles más altos de la actividad económica y de empleo. El modelo muestra también que los tipos de cambio flotantes tienden a reducir las fluctuaciones de las variables nominales—como los precios y los tipos de interés—en mayor medida que los tipos de cambio fijos, si bien es verdad que tienden también a ampliar las fluctuaciones de las variables reales como, por ejemplo, las de producción y empleo.

In statistical matter (except in the résumés and resúmenes) throughout this issue,

Dots (…) indicate that data are not available;

A dash (—) indicates that the figure is zero or less than half the final digit shown, or that the item does not exist;

A single dot (.) indicates decimals;

A comma (,) separates thousands and millions;

“Billion” means a thousand million;

A short dash (–) is used between years or months (e.g., 1977–79 or January–October) to indicate a total of the years or months inclusive of the beginning and ending years or months;

A stroke (/) is used between years (e.g., 1978/79) to indicate a fiscal year or a crop year;

Components of tables may not add to totals shown because of rounding.

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