Vanuatu: 2021 Article IV Consultation -Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Vanuatu

International Monetary Fund. Asia and Pacific Dept

doi:10.5089/9781513597171.002.A001

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International Monetary Fund. Asia and Pacific Dept

International Monetary Fund. Asia and Pacific Dept
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Publication Date:: 14 Sep 2021

eISBN:: 9781513597171

ISBN:: 9781513597171

Language:: English

Keywords:: risk profile; School reconstruction Project; improvement Project; Vanuatu aviation investment Project; stimulus package; Loans; Infrastructure

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1. Vanuatu graduated in 2020 from the United Nation’s list of least developed countries, but its development needs remain high.1 Consisting of 83 islands with a population of about three hundred thousand, Vanuatu’s GDP per capita remains below that of most of its peers in the Pacific. Accelerating economic development in an archipelago that is far removed from the closest continent will require infrastructure investment in various areas, including transportation, energy, and information and communications technology. While the tourism sector remains integral to Vanuatu’s economy, further economic diversification is needed to enhance sustainable and inclusive growth and resilience.

Abstract

Pre-Pandemic Landscape and Challenges

1. Vanuatu graduated in 2020 from the United Nation’s list of least developed countries, but its development needs remain high.^¹ Consisting of 83 islands with a population of about three hundred thousand, Vanuatu’s GDP per capita remains below that of most of its peers in the Pacific. Accelerating economic development in an archipelago that is far removed from the closest continent will require infrastructure investment in various areas, including transportation, energy, and information and communications technology. While the tourism sector remains integral to Vanuatu’s economy, further economic diversification is needed to enhance sustainable and inclusive growth and resilience.

2. Vanuatu’s economy was expanding prior to the Covid-19 pandemic. Annual real GDP growth averaged 4.5 percent in 2016–19, underpinned by large public investments following Tropical Cyclone Pam in 2015, rising agricultural exports, and an increase in tourism receipts and remittances, which inter alia also helped strengthen the external position.^² Windfall revenues in recent years from the Economic Citizenship Program (ECP)^³ that offers passports in return for investment helped the government maintain a prudent fiscal stance and reduce public debt. Inflation has generally been within the Reserve Bank of Vanuatu’s (RBV) target range of 0 to 4 percent, and the financial system has remained sound.

3. Key structural vulnerabilities relate to climate change, limited cross border financial linkages, and weak governance. Vanuatu remains extremely vulnerable to climate change. It ranked first in the 2020 World Risk Index^⁴ for vulnerability to natural disasters—highlighting the need for public investment in resilient infrastructure. Concerns relating to AML/CFT and financial integrity risks, particularly in the context of weak due diligence with regard to the ECP, put Vanuatu’s limited financial links at risk. This is reflected in Vanuatu’s recent loss of a key correspondent banking relationship (CBR)—a vital channel for ECP payments—and what will likely be a significant drop in ECP revenues. The loss of the CBR highlights underlying financial integrity risks, notably pertaining to AML/CFT and tax transparency.

Recent Developments, Outlook and Risks

4. The authorities’ decisive pandemic containment measures prevented a local outbreak of COVID-19 but have entailed a high economic cost. Borders have been closed under a state of emergency since March 2020^⁵, and to date only three confirmed cases of COVID-19 have been identified at Vanuatu’s borders. However, the closure dealt a severe blow to tourism, with spillovers to other sectors. Infrastructure projects have been delayed due to the border closure and lack of domestic capacity.

5. Vanuatu has also been hit by major natural disasters in 2020. In the first half of the year, Tropical Cyclone Harold and a volcanic eruption in Tanna Island caused extensive damage and severely affected crop production and food supply.^⁶ However, favorable weather after the natural disasters and a reallocation of workers from tourism to agriculture have helped alleviate the damage to agricultural output, but the border closure has delayed rebuilding activities.

6. The authorities responded with a comprehensive policy package to mitigate the socio-economic impact of the pandemic and natural disasters. Policy measures included the following:

The government announced a fiscal stimulus package in April 2020, amounting to over 4 percent of GDP, targeted at mitigating economic and social hardship. A major component (almost a quarter of this package) included emergency support to employment in the tourism sector. However, actual disbursements of support and fee exemptions have only amounted to about 2.5 percent of GDP, owing in part to limited implementation capacity. The Vanuatu National Provident Fund (VNPF) also supported members by providing short-term loans. In May 2021, the government announced the second fiscal stimulus package, again targeted at households and firms most affected by the pandemic. The government is also developing a scheme to provide further financial support of around 1.8 percent of GDP through commercial banks and the Vanuatu Agricultural Development Bank (VADB).
In March 2020, the RBV cut its policy rate by 65 bps to 2.25 percent and increased liquidity support to banks.^⁷ The RBV also allowed a loan repayment deferral and relaxed loan classification requirements until end-September 2021 to provide banks additional time to restructure loans. The regulatory threshold for banks’ Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR) was reduced from 12 percent to 10 percent.

Vanuatu: Policy Response to the COVID-19 Shock and Twin Natural Disasters

Source: Vanuatu authorities. (Note) If no “expiration” date is indicated, the policy measure is ongoing as of July 2021.

Vanuatu: Policy Response to the COVID-19 Shock and Twin Natural Disasters

Policy Measures		Size (Percent of GDP)	Expiration Date
Fiscal
Economic Stimulus Package in 2020
	Employment Stabilisation Payment	0.94	Sep-20
	Small and Medium Enterprise Grant	0.25	Nov-20
	School Fee Subsidy	0.36
	Commodity Subsidy	0.16
	Shipping Subsidy	0.01
	Cancellation business fees and charges	0.78
Second Economic Stimulus Package in 2021
	Wage Subsidy Scheme	0.52	Sep-21
	Small Business Grant	0.65	Sep-21
Monetary
	Policy rate cut from 2.9% to 2.25%
	Reactivated the Disaster Reconstruction and Credit Facility
	Reactivated the Import Substitution and Export Finance Facility
	TC Harold Relief Assistance Initiative	0.03
Financial
	Suspension of onsite examinations but focus more on offsite monitoring.
	Reduced regulatory Capital Adequacy Ratio threshold from 12.0% to 10.0%
	Loan repayment deferrals		Sep-21
	Temporary suspension of prudential requirement on asset quality		Sep-21

Source: Vanuatu authorities. (Note) If no “expiration” date is indicated, the policy measure is ongoing as of July 2021.

Vanuatu: Policy Response to the COVID-19 Shock and Twin Natural Disasters

Policy Measures		Size (Percent of GDP)	Expiration Date
Fiscal
Economic Stimulus Package in 2020
	Employment Stabilisation Payment	0.94	Sep-20
	Small and Medium Enterprise Grant	0.25	Nov-20
	School Fee Subsidy	0.36
	Commodity Subsidy	0.16
	Shipping Subsidy	0.01
	Cancellation business fees and charges	0.78
Second Economic Stimulus Package in 2021
	Wage Subsidy Scheme	0.52	Sep-21
	Small Business Grant	0.65	Sep-21
Monetary
	Policy rate cut from 2.9% to 2.25%
	Reactivated the Disaster Reconstruction and Credit Facility
	Reactivated the Import Substitution and Export Finance Facility
	TC Harold Relief Assistance Initiative	0.03
Financial
	Suspension of onsite examinations but focus more on offsite monitoring.
	Reduced regulatory Capital Adequacy Ratio threshold from 12.0% to 10.0%
	Loan repayment deferrals		Sep-21
	Temporary suspension of prudential requirement on asset quality		Sep-21

Source: Vanuatu authorities. (Note) If no “expiration” date is indicated, the policy measure is ongoing as of July 2021.

7. Notwithstanding support measures, economic activity contracted sharply, with attendant implications for the financial sector. Real GDP is estimated to have contracted by 6.8 percent in 2020, led by a collapse of activity in tourism and related sectors, including accommodation and food services. Headline inflation spiked to 5.6 percent in 2020Q2^⁸ and is expected to persist because of the longer-than-expected food supply shock caused by natural disasters and higher international food prices particularly for rice. In the financial sector, the system-wide NPL ratio increased from 14.4 percent at end-2019 to 19.0 percent at end-2020.^⁹ The CAR has remained well above the regulatory threshold at 20 percent as of end-2020.

8. Strong ECP receipts and donor support have helped mitigate the impact of the pandemic on fiscal and external balances.

Despite a surge in expenditures and a decline in tax revenues, the overall fiscal position was near balance in 2020, owing to delays in infrastructure spending, windfall ECP receipts (about one third of total revenues) and donor support. The ECP receipts represent both a benefit and a drawback for Vanuatu. On the one hand, they have provided the country with financing to help address challenges posed by the pandemic and natural disasters. Conversely, owing to AML/CFT concerns and governance issues (see paragraph 29), E CP tr ans actions pose risks to CBRs.
Similarly, despite a sharp decline in tourist arrivals, the current account registered a surplus of 3.3 percent of GDP in 2020, and international reserves increased to U$613.6 million (about 15 months of prospective import cover). Vanuatu’s external position in 2020 is assessed to be stronger than fundamentals and desirable policy settings (Appendix III).

9. The authorities have initiated their vaccination rollout, but challenges are expected. The authorities currently plan to vaccinate 20 percent of the population under COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access (COVAX) in 2021 and 40 percent of the population by June 2022.^¹⁰ The authorities received 20,000 doses (AstraZeneca) through COVAX, 20,000 doses (AstraZeneca) from Australia, and 24,000 doses from China (Sinopharm). The authorities also expect to receive 48,000 doses (AstraZeneca) from Japan in August 2021 and additional 28,000 doses (AstraZeneca) from Australia soon. Sufficient vaccine doses for the entire population are expected to be secured through COVAX and donor support in the near term, but the rollout faces logistical difficulties and vaccination hesitancy in some areas.

10. Real GDP growth is expected to increase to 1.2 percent in 2021, led by an uptick in agriculture output, remittances, and construction activity. Rising agricultural production is expected to bolster growth. Remittances are projected to remain resilient due to the resumption of seasonal worker programs and should support private consumption. Growth will also be supported by construction activity, notwithstanding delays that may push several infrastructure projects into 2022.^¹¹ Tourism related sectors are expected to contract further in 2021 due to the extension of border closures to end -2021 and are expected to begin a gradual recovery from 2022. Staff project the economy to recover to pre-pandemic output level by end-2023. Non-food inflationary pressures are expected to remain low. The current account deficit is projected to widen to 6.9 percent of GDP in 2021.

11. Risks to the outlook are substantial and tilted to the downside. A worsening of the global pandemic requiring longer border closure would adversely impact economic activity, while faster vaccination rollout and subsequent border reopening would be an upside risk. ECP revenues could fall sharply amid growing concerns regarding AML/CFT risks, amplified by the recent loss of a key CBR. Issues concerning AML/CFT and EU blacklisting related to tax transparency could accelerate de-risking by foreign firms, leading to further loss of CBRs and impeding foreign direct investment (FDI). Further deterioration of banks’ asset quality could erode the soundness of Vanuatu’s financial system. Lack of transparency and an effective supervision framework for SOEs could increase government contingent liabilities and negatively affect the business environment. An ever-present downside risk relates to further natural disasters (Annex IV).

Authorities’ Views

12. The authorities broadly concurred with staff’s assessment on economic developments, outlook, and risks. The authorities’ GDP growth forecasts were more optimistic than those of staff, based on a lower estimate of tourism’s share of overall contribution to GDP. Inflation is expected to remain high in the first half of 2021 due to the temporary food supply shock and the increase in global fuel prices while non-food inflation is projected to remain under control. The authorities expected ongoing agricultural support programs to stabilize supply and prices over the medium term. They viewed the exchange rate regime as having served them well, including in the context of the ongoing pandemic, and foreign reserves to be at a comfortable level. The authorities emphasized the importance of supporting the agriculture sector because of labor shifts from the tourism sector to the agriculture sector at this juncture. Supporting the agriculture sector also contributes to fostering economic diversification of Vanuatu. The rollout of the Electronic Single Wind ow has helped reducetrading costs. The authorities expressed strong concern over the loss of CBRs , which they attributed to global de-risking, and called for coordinated action from the international community to reverse the trend.

Sustaining Recovery and Growth

Given heightened uncertainty, macroeconomic and financial policies should remain accommodative in the near term to support the recovery, while securing sufficient buffers to safeguard against near- and medium-term risks. To this end, short-term accommodation and support should be embedded in a medium-term framework to anchor sustained and inclusive growth while ensuring fiscal and debt sustainability.

A. Fiscal Policy

13. Continued fiscal support should remain in place over the near term. Based on the authorities’ 2021 budget,^¹² staff projects the fiscal deficit to widen to 3.5 percent of GDP in 2021 from 0.1 percent of GDP in 2020.^¹³ Given the spending needs for recovery and support to the vulnerable, and the current balance of risks, staff recommended that the phasing-out of COVID-related support should be state-contingent and supports the planned short-term expansion of the fiscal deficit. However, Vanuatu’s limited fiscal space poses constraints for continued fiscal support if the pandemic is protracted. In this context, it is critical to ensure that support continues to be well targeted at household s and fir ms most affected by the pandemic. Government support for loans made by commercial banks and the VADB should aim at supporting companies that are most affected by the pandemic but remain viable to minimize fiscal risks. It would also be important to strengthen public expenditure and investment management for a more efficient use of public resources.^¹⁴ Further, while logistical difficulties and vaccination hesitancy are serious challenges to tackle, front-loading the vaccination strategy as feasible with support of development partners should remain a priority to help secure Vanuatu’s economic recovery.

14. The fiscal trajectory remains uncertain, and Vanuatu’s fiscal space is limited. The Debt Sustainability Analysis (DSA) indicates that the risk of debt distress in Vanuatu is moderate with limited space to absorb shocks and remains unchanged from the previous DSA. However, the risk of losing ECP revenues is increasing due to elevated concern about ECP due diligence with respect to AML/CFT together with the recent loss of a key CBR. A sudden stop in ECP revenues could undermine fiscal sustainability and require more rapid fiscal consolidation. Further, Vanuatu’s development needs and vulnerabilities to climate change will likely require a scaling up of infrastructure spending over the medium-term. As grants are expected to shrink as the economy develops, and given the small domestic financial market, Vanuatu will need to rely on external concessional financing (see 2021 DSA).

15. Near-term support needs to be embedded in a credible medium-term fiscal strategy. A key fiscal anchor in Vanuatu is to maintain nominal public and publicly guaranteed (PPG) debt below 60 percent of GDP.^¹⁵ Vanuatu faces a dilemma. In the context of the pandemic and recent natural disasters, adhering to this target could be a significant challenge, especially if ECP revenues are lost. At the same time, to build additional buffers against shocks (particularly frequent natural disasters and climate change), Vanuatu would benefit from aspiring to a more stringent debt anchor, such as a 50 percent PPG debt-to-GDP target, as recommended in the 2019 Article IV consultation. These trade-offs inform staff’s reform scenario and policy recommendations (see below). The fiscal deficit under staff’s baseline scenario^¹⁶ is projected to be around 4 percent of GDP over the medium-term, leading to a breach of the authorities’ PPG fiscal anchor in 2028 as shown in DSA—which suggests that further action on revenue mobilization will be necessary to maintain debt sustainability. The authorities should formulate a medium-term fiscal strategy that also ensures proper use of ECP revenues. Staff recommends the following key measures:

Complete the proposed 2017 tax reforms.^¹⁷ The introduction of personal and corporate income taxes (with reduction in less efficient taxes) could increase government revenues by 2.5 percent of GDP.^¹⁸ A phased introduction of personal and corporate income taxes could be considered.
Stabilize expenditures as a share of GDP. Expenditures under the domestically financed budget are expected to be stable. In order to maintain the expected expenditure path, keeping the wage bill in check^¹⁹ and maintaining a positive recurrent spending balance together with conservative ECP revenue projections will be key.
Limit and prioritize external borrowings by SOEs. Preventing a breach of the debt target should be a key objective.^²⁰ The authorities should strengthen monitoring and control of the fiscal risks posed by SOEs, including by introducing a governmental approval system of their external borrowing as well as improving their governance.

16. Staff recommends a gradual fiscal adjustment once the recovery is entrenched. Staff’s reform scenario assumes a gradual fiscal consolidation of 0.6 per cent of GDP annually starting in 2024. Two cases are presented under this scenario, one with 2-year adjustment (from 2024 to 2025) and the other with 3-year adjustment (from 2024 to 2026). The nominal PPG-debt-to-GDP ratio would remain below 60 percent of GDP in the medium- to long-term under the first adjustment case while the ratio would decline below 50 percent of GDP in the second case. This suggests that a 2-year fiscal consolidation could achieve the authorities’ current debt target and that the additional one-year adjustment could provide additional fiscal buffers. While the initiation of fiscal adjustment should remain state-contingent, a credible forward-looking fiscal strategy should be put in place.

17. Further fiscal consolidation would allow the authorities to reduce reliance on ECP revenues and to use the revenues for investing in climate-resilient infrastructure. Implementing an annual fiscal consolidation of 0.6 percent of GDP through 2031, to compensate for the potential loss of all ECP revenues from 2022 onwards, would keep the present value of PPG debt to GDP below the DSA threshold of 55 percent.

Authorities’ Views

18. The authorities stressed their strong commitment to maintaining a positive recurrent balance and to prepayments to contain debt accumulation when the fiscal condition is favorable. The authorities recognized that there would be an upward pressure on maintenance costs for infrastructure going forward on the domestically funded budget. They also recognized that revenue mobilization may be needed in the future, as ECP proceeds were not a stable and sustainable source of revenues. In this context, the authorities appreciated the 2021 DSA scenario analysis, which assumed the loss of all ECP revenues. While seeking alternative administrative measures to ensure ECP transactions can continue to be processed, the authorities underscored that their strong cash reserves could provide some breathing space in the event of a sudden stop of ECP revenues in the short term. If necessary, they could resort to domestic bond issuance. However, there was no plan to introduce personal and corporate income taxes. They agreed with the staff’s recommendations to strengthen monitoring and control of fiscal risks posed by SOEs.

B. Monetary and Financial Sector Policy

19. The authorities should maintain the current accommodative monetary policy stance with a low policy rate and ample liquidity support until the recovery is entrenched. The authorities’ support measures have functioned well given ample liquidity in commercial banks. Headline CPI inflation has been higher than the RBV’s target range of 0 to 4 percent partly due to TC Harold related food supply shock and rising global food prices but is expected to return to the target range.^²¹ The RBV has successfully stabilized non-food inflation between 0 and 1 percent over the past years. These suggest that the authorities’ monetary policy stance is appropriate. However, the authorities should continue to closely monitor and periodically reassess the policy stance —particularly in the event of unexpected shocks or persistent inflationary pressures. The authorities confirmed that they have not introduced any changes to Vanuatu’s foreign exchange system since the last Article IV consultation.

20. The authorities should carefully monitor individual banks and continue to strengthen supervision. As of end-2020, CARs of all banks were above the regulatory threshold while individual banks’ financial positions varied. However, Vanuatu’s NPLs net of provisions to capital are higher than in other Pacific Island Countries, and rising NPLs in the wake of the pandemic could pose challenges to financial sector soundness. The relaxation of loan classification requirements (extended to end-September 2021) may mask vulnerabilities in bank balance sheets. Stress testing is recommended to highlight potential weaknesses. If there are cases where capital and liquidity buffers fall below regulatory minima, the RBV should agree with banks on plans to bring capital and liquidity above the minimum threshold. The RBV should guide banks to accumulate further general provisioning early and restructure the debt of temporarily illiquid but otherwise solvent borrowers. It is important to establish crisis management and resolution frameworks.

21. NBV lost its only CBR of USD at end-June 2021. While NBV is the only domestic bank holding multiple branches in rural areas, the impact of the loss on export businesses is limited as exporters can access other domestic banks’ USD clearing services. On the other hand, NBV faces a potential loss of customers needing USD clearing services. This would adversely affect NBV’s profitability. The authorities should closely monitor NBV’s financial position and appropriately manage any fiscal risks given that NBV is owned by the VNPF and the government.

22. It would be crucial to improve the credit system for quicker reduction in existing NPLs and for healthier bank lending. The high NPL ratio in the personal credit sector over the years arose from poor credit standards of banks amid efforts to promote financial inclusion, and the situation has remained broadly unchanged (except for 2020-Q4 affected by relaxation of loan classification). The authorities need further efforts to reduce NPLs, including reforming judicial process for swifter collateral asset recovery. To avoid accumulation of NPLs, it would be important to improve accessibility to usable credit information. Staff welcome the authorities’ efforts to improve Vanuatu’s credit bureau to enrich credit information and make it usable with digital technology.

23. Digitalization could advance financial inclusion, but there are challenges ahead. The pandemic and natural disasters in 2020 have led to increased use of digital technologies for financial services. Digital money with blockchain technology was used to deliver aid to households affected by natural disasters (Box 1). However, the lack of a personal identification system prevents the widespread adoption of digital money. The current AML/CFT legal framework does not cover digital money activities. The authorities should focus their efforts on establishing a personal identification registration system and a legal framework to supervise digital money activities.

Authorities’ Views

24. The authorities considered the current monetary policy stance as appropriate. While inflation is expected to remain within target over the medium-term, the authorities acknowledged that risks remain. The authorities committed to close monitoring and periodic reassessment of the monetary policy stance.

25. The authorities committed to carefully monitoring of the banking sector and strengthening supervision. The RBV was closely monitoring individual banks’ financial situation to safeguard financial stability. The authorities are eager to establish crisis management and resolution frameworks.

26. The authorities highlighted that they are conducting a holistic review of financial sector regulatory frameworks. New legislation of national payment system will improve cross border payment activities in the region, facilitating business activities. Improving credit reporting will also contribute to business environment. The authorities concurred that new legislation on AML/CFT may be needed to accelerate digital money activities in Vanuatu. The amendment of Financial Dealers Licensing Act to allow digital asset trading and require physical presence of all license holders in Vanuatu was gazetted in July 2021.

^{Box 1.}

Oxfam’s Blockchain-Powered Aid Program in Vanuatu

The program, namely UnBlocked Cash Project, is designed to deliver aid using blockchain technology to house holds affected by natural disasters. This was in response to the twin effects of Tropical Cyclone Harold and Covid-19 that severely impacted incomes and livelihoods of vulnerable households. The blockchain cash transfer solution could help Pacific Island Countries overcome capacity and financial infrastructural constraints by digitizing the delivery of aid to remote, rural, at risk populations.

The program uses an open-sourced blockchain-enabled system for quick and transparent financial aid. The system was developed by Oxfam in partnership with Sempo and ConsenSys. Each beneficiary and vendor are registered on the developed digital platform to manage their own accounts and use cashless transactions. Beneficiaries are given prepaid Near Field Communication (NFC) cards to purchase items at pre-approved vendors. The vendors’ account balance in the platform is instantly updated whenever a purchase is made. The vendors can easily cash out to their bank accounts. To avoid the high cost of bank transfers, super vendors were created by Oxfam to allow businesses with sufficient liquidity to cash out smaller vendors. Compared to other aid delivery methods, the blockchain-based solution has several advantages: quick cash transfers (within a few hours); efficient reconciliation process (automatically linking all transactions with a unique 6-digit code); and high transparency (a running ledger of live, traceable transactions and real time monitoring by multiple parties).

Personal identification is a key challenge for wider adoption of digital money. Before launching the program, Oxfam conducted a feasibility study to identify households requiring cash transfers (beneficiaries) and the shops that these households use frequently (vendors). Oxfam collected personal identifiable information of all beneficiaries such as resident’s location, age, and gender. Vendors also provided additional Know Your Customer (KYC) requirements including bank account details, photo ID, full name, phone number, business name and location. Those businesses that did not meet the requirements were removed from the program. The identification process was time-consuming and complicated—some beneficiaries did not have a birth certificate. This suggests that established personal identification system would be needed to better facilitate widespread adoption of digital money activities.

There is no legal framework and financial supervision policy in place to govern the use of digital money or e-commerce. The RBV gave approval for the Oxfam’s program through a time bound no- objection letter outlining certain compliance safeguards (e.g. restricted use of the blockchain platform and banks’ KYC and AML requirements for participants) that Oxfam needs to meet. Oxfam needs to maintain the safeguards throughout the program and provide reports to the RBV on a quarterly basis. To further develop e-commerce and digital money activities, the authorities would need to establish relevant legal frameworks. The authorities consider a regulatory sandbox to help develop regulations around the use of e-commerce and digital money.

C. Macro-Structural and Governance Issues

27. Economic diversification and development of quality infrastructure are essential for sustained and inclusive growth and resilience to shocks. The authorities are making progress towards agricultural diversification, with large growth in the fisheries industry (although the scale is still low). Vanuatu has also recently begun to supply some agricultural products, such as passionfruit and cassava, to Australia and New Zealand. In the context of economic diversification, promoting FDI is vital. Smooth ratification of the Pacific Agreement on Closer Economic Relations (PACER) Plus and improving FDI regulations could help facilitate higher levels of investment. Infrastructure projects to reduce gaps and improve connectivity to key markets could support economic development.^²² The authorities should continue to promote agricultural diversification and prioritize infrastructure projects, complemented by improvements in the business environment such as streamlining FDI regulations (Annexes VI and VII).

Vanuatu: Major Development-Partner-Financed Infrastructure Projects 2013–2021

Sources: Vanuatu authorities, World Bank and ADB. Notes: All loans are concessional; AUS is Australia, JPN is Japan, NZL is New Zealand, EIF is the Enhanced Integrated Framework. GREEN designates a post-cyclone-Pam reconstruction project. If no “completed” date is indicated, the project is ongoing as of July, 2021.

Vanuatu: Major Development-Partner-Financed Infrastructure Projects 2013–2021

Project	Started	Completed	Location	Development Partner(s)	Funding
Port Vila Urban Development Project	2013	2019	Port Vila	AUS, ADB	Grants, Loans (ADB)
Interisland Shipping Support Project	2013		Luganville, Ambae, Malekula, Tanna, Pentecost	NZL, ADB	Grants, Loans (ADB)
Lapetasi Multi-Purpose International Wharf Development	2013	2018	Port Vila	JICA, others	Loans
Road Rehabilitation & Upgrade Program, Phase 1	2014	2018	Tanna, Malekula	China EXIM	Loans
Vanuatu Tourism Infrastructure Project	2015	2017	Port Vila	NZL, EIF	Grants
Luganville International Wharf	2015	2018	Luganville	China EXIM	Loans
Vanuatu Aviation Investment Project	2015	2019	Port Vila, Luganville, Tanna	WBG	Loans
Vanuatu Rural Electrification Project	2015	2020	All islands	WBG (IDA)	Grant
Vanuatu Cyclone Pam School Reconstruction Project	2016	2019	Tafea province	ADB, JPN	Grants
Vanuatu Infrastructure Reconstruction & Improvement Project	2016		All islands	WBG (IDA)	Grants, Loans
Vanuatu Rural Electrification Project Stage II	2017		All islands	WBG (IDA)	Grants, Loans
Energy Access Project	2017		Malekula, Santo	ADB	Grants, Loans
Vanuatu Pam Road Reconstruction Project	2017	2020	Efate	ADB	Grants, Loans
Vanuatu Cyclone Pam School Reconstruction Project	2017	2019	All islands	ADB	Loans
Road Rehabilitation & Upgrade Program, Phase 2	2019		Tanna, Malekula	China EXIM	Loans
Roads for Development, Phase 2	2019		All islands	AUS	Grants
Vanuatu Pentecost Road and Wharf Project Phase I	2021		Pentecost	China EXIM	Grants, Loans

Vanuatu: Major Development-Partner-Financed Infrastructure Projects 2013–2021

Project	Started	Completed	Location	Development Partner(s)	Funding
Port Vila Urban Development Project	2013	2019	Port Vila	AUS, ADB	Grants, Loans (ADB)
Interisland Shipping Support Project	2013		Luganville, Ambae, Malekula, Tanna, Pentecost	NZL, ADB	Grants, Loans (ADB)
Lapetasi Multi-Purpose International Wharf Development	2013	2018	Port Vila	JICA, others	Loans
Road Rehabilitation & Upgrade Program, Phase 1	2014	2018	Tanna, Malekula	China EXIM	Loans
Vanuatu Tourism Infrastructure Project	2015	2017	Port Vila	NZL, EIF	Grants
Luganville International Wharf	2015	2018	Luganville	China EXIM	Loans
Vanuatu Aviation Investment Project	2015	2019	Port Vila, Luganville, Tanna	WBG	Loans
Vanuatu Rural Electrification Project	2015	2020	All islands	WBG (IDA)	Grant
Vanuatu Cyclone Pam School Reconstruction Project	2016	2019	Tafea province	ADB, JPN	Grants
Vanuatu Infrastructure Reconstruction & Improvement Project	2016		All islands	WBG (IDA)	Grants, Loans
Vanuatu Rural Electrification Project Stage II	2017		All islands	WBG (IDA)	Grants, Loans
Energy Access Project	2017		Malekula, Santo	ADB	Grants, Loans
Vanuatu Pam Road Reconstruction Project	2017	2020	Efate	ADB	Grants, Loans
Vanuatu Cyclone Pam School Reconstruction Project	2017	2019	All islands	ADB	Loans
Road Rehabilitation & Upgrade Program, Phase 2	2019		Tanna, Malekula	China EXIM	Loans
Roads for Development, Phase 2	2019		All islands	AUS	Grants
Vanuatu Pentecost Road and Wharf Project Phase I	2021		Pentecost	China EXIM	Grants, Loans

28. Enhancing climate resilience is essential. The government formulated the National Adaptation Plan for Action in 2006, but it has not been updated. The adaptation plan is granular but lacks estimated fiscal costs and a financing roadmap. It will be crucial to clearly articulate a medium-term expenditure and financing roadmap for the adaptation plan. Introduction of a climate change expenditure tagging system would help the government identify financial gaps and facilitate donor financing. In terms of natural disaster response, the Disaster Risk Management Act came to effect in February 2020 and its operationalization is underway. Staff recommends integrating financing plans, cons is tent with a medium-term fiscal strategy, for the adaptation plan and disaster response to support resilience-building in a more efficient and effective manner (Annex VIII).

29. Improving governance, reducing vulnerabilities to corruption, and bolstering Vanuatu’s risk profile is essential.

ECP and AML/CFT concerns. Despite improvements to its AML/CFT framework, Vanuatu still faces financial integrity risks.^²³ Most critically, the authorities need to address financial integrity and reputational risks associated with the ECP. The current vetting process of applicants does not appear to be adequate and several individuals who obtained passports through the ECP have been linked to criminal activity. The authorities should strengthen AML/CFT framework as well as institutional capacity to ensure proper and rigorous oversight of the ECP. In particular, it would be crucial to establish more stringent process of vetting applicants and detecting criminal activities by existing ECP passport holders and new applicants.
SOE Governance. The reform for SOEs has not seen progress since the last Article IV consultation. It is critical to quickly bolster management and transparency of SOEs—particularly with respect to Air Vanuatu. The authorities should be able to scrutinize SOE’s business strategy and budget while ensuring managerial autonomy, and regularly monitor their financial conditions. Timely publication of financial statements would contribute to improving the business environment. Staff recommends that the SOE legal framework establish supervisory frameworks for SOEs to enhance their transparency. The authorities should properly manage fiscal risks by minimizing the contingent liabilities of Air Vanuatu, which is under restructuring. ^²⁴
Tax Transparency. The legislative amendment to meet the international standard on tax information exchange, which could contribute to delisting from EU’s blacklist, is still under discussion of the parliament. Staff recommends that the amendment be implemented and made effective as early as possible.
Central Bank Autonomy and Governance. The RBV’s autonomy and governance arrangements should be strengthened as per the recommendations of the 2016 Safeguard Assessment.^²⁵ While staff welcome the recent appointment of a Chief Risk Officer, the drafting of relevant amendments to the RBV Act is still incomplete. Further, the absence of an effective audit committee and an internal audit function presents additional risks for the RBV’s governance.

Authorities’ Views

30. The authorities concurred on the importance of economic diversification for Vanuatu. One of the policy objectives of the Vanuatu 2030 The People’s Plan is to promote broad-based growth by strengthening linkages between tourism, infrastructure, agriculture, and industry in rural areas and diversify the rural economy. The authorities explained their policies in agriculture focus on diversifying the production chain, supported by donors. The authorities also highlighted their policies to incentivize fishery manufacturing locally in Vanuatu. The authorities mentioned that the FDI related regulation is currently under review to be in line with PACER Plus.

31. The authorities acknowledged the importance of a financing roadmap. The authorities underscored the importance of investing in resilient infrastructure. They expressed their interest in introducing climate change expenditure tagging system. The authorities explained that the National Adaptation Plan for Action is currently under review for revision in 2021. In terms of natural disaster response, due to capacity constraints, they focused on COVID-19 related response such as supporting vaccination rollout, and their operationalization of the Disaster Risk Management Act is under consideration toward swifter response to natural disasters.

32. The authorities committed to strengthening the AML/CFT framework and institutional capacity. They were deeply concerned with the risk of losing CBRs and were considering strengthening ECP due diligence. This year, the authorities expected to complete several pieces of legislation on administration and governance reforms, including amending Tax Administration Act. The authorities highlighted the progress in central bank governance, notably appointment of Chief Risk Officer. The authorities planned to complete the amendment to the RBV Act along with the recommendations of the 2016 safeguard assessment in the broader context of financial sector reforms.

Capacity Development Integration

33. Vanuatu needs further technical assistance (TA) in the following priority areas:

Statistical issues. While broadly adequate for surveillance purposes, large revisions, quality, and timeliness remain a concern for some national data (Informational Annex). Staff recommend that the authorities seek further support from the Pacific Financial Technical Assistance Centre (PFTAC) and Statistics Department on the compilation and development of national accounts statistics. TA on macro-frameworks could also contribute to improving the forecasting capacities.
Public financial management. Given Vanuatu’s large infrastructure needs, TA on public infrastructure management could further contribute to improving the quality of infrastructure management.
Banking supervision. TA on risk-based supervision from PFTAC is ongoing, although the pandemic has hindered progress. There is urgent need for TA on the crisis management and resolution frameworks, following the recommendations of the 2019 banking diagnostic assessment.
AML/CFT. Given the recent loss of a vital CBR, Vanuatu has clear need to further improve the AML/CFT framework and institutional capacity.

Authorities’ Views

34. The authorities expressed their appreciation for the support received from the Fund and PFTAC and requested that this support be continued. The authorities reiterated their commitment to push ahead with reforms supported by capacity building, especially strengthening AML/CFT due diligence, financial sector supervision, and statistics.

Staff Appraisal

35. After a severe contraction in 2020, real GDP is expected to return to positive territory in 2021, supported by agricultural production and remittance income. Growth will also be supported by construction activity, notwithstanding delays that may push several infrastructure projects into 2022. Tourism related sectors are expected to contract further in 2021 due to the extended border closure and are expected to start a gradual recovery beginning in 2022. The current strength of the external position is temporary, driven by strong revenues from the ECP. Vanuatu’s external position is assessed to be stronger than implied by fundamentals and desirable policy settings. Going forward, it is expected that current account balances will narrow, owing to a moderation in ECP-related flows and only a gradual recovery in tourism receipts.

36. Risks to the outlook are substantial and tilted to the downside. A worsening of the global pandemic requiring longer border closure would adversely impact economic activity, while a faster vaccination rollout and subsequent border reopening would be an upside risk. ECP revenues could fall sharply amid growing concerns on AML/CFT risks, amplified by the recent loss of a key CBR. Further deterioration of banks’ asset quality could erode the soundness of Vanuatu’s financial system. Lack of transparency and effective supervision framework for state enterprises could increase government contingent liabilities and negatively affect the business environment. Issues concerning AML/CFT and EU blacklisting related to tax transparency could accelerate de-risking by foreign firms, leading to further loss of CBRs, and impeding FDI. An ever -present downside risk relates to further natural disasters.

37. Continued fiscal support over the near term is necessary. The phasing-out of COVID-related support should be state-contingent. However, given Vanuatu’s limited fiscal space, it is critical to ensure that support continues to be well targeted at households and firms most affected by the pandemic. It would be also important to strengthen public expenditure and investment management for a more efficient use of public resources. Properly managing fiscal risks by minimizing the contingent liabilities of Air Vanuatu would also be key. Front-loading the vaccination strategy as feasible with support of development partners should be a priority to help support the recovery.

38. Near-term support needs to be embedded in a credible medium-term fiscal strategy that brings about a gradual fiscal adjustment once recovery is firmly entrenched. The medium-term fiscal trajectory remains uncertain, and Vanuatu’s fiscal space is limited. In the medium-term, Vanuatu’s development needs and vulnerabilities to climate change would require a scaling up of infrastructure spending. While the initiation of fiscal adjustment should remain state-contingent, a credible forward-looking fiscal strategy, including an introduction of personal and corporate income taxes, should be put in place. Further fiscal consolidation would allow the authorities to reduce the reliance on ECP revenues and to use the revenues for resilient infrastructure.

39. The current accommodative monetary policy stance is appropriate. The RBV should maintain the current accommodative stance until the recovery is entrenched and continue to closely monitor and periodically reassess the policy stance —particularly in the event of unexpected shock s or persistent inflationary pressures.

40. The financial sector is broadly stable but should be carefully monitored. As of end-2020, CARs of all banks were above the regulatory threshold while individual banks’ financial positions varied. However, rising NPLs in the wake of the pandemic could pose some challenges to financial sector soundness.

41. Economic diversification and development of quality infrastructure will be essential for sustained and inclusive growth and resilience to shocks. Smooth ratification of PACER Plus and improving the regulatory framework could promote vital foreign investment.

42. Further enhancing climate resilience is necessary. Introduction of a climate change expenditure tagging system would help government identify financial gaps and facilitate donor financing. Staff recommends integrating financing plans, consistent with a medium-term fiscal strategy, for the adaptation plan and disaster response to support resilience-building in a more efficient and effective manner.

43. Improving governance, reducing vulnerabilities to corruption, and bolstering Vanuatu’s risk profile is essential. It is critical to quickly bolster management and transparency of the SOEs—particularly with respect to Air Vanuatu. The authorities should establish supervisory frameworks for SOEs and enhance their transparency as soon as possible. The authorities should strengthen further legal frameworks and institutional capacities on AML/CFT (especially ECP due diligence), tax transparency, central bank autonomy and governance. These measures should also reduce corruption vulnerabilities.

44. It is recommended that the next Article IV Consultation takes place on the standard 12-month cycle.

^{Table 1.}

Vanuatu: Selected Economic Indicators, 2018–2023

Sources: Vanuatu authorities; and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Weighted average rate of interest for total bank deposits and loans.

^{^2/}The vatu is officially pegged to an undisclosed basket of currencies.

^{Table 1.}

Vanuatu: Selected Economic Indicators, 2018–2023

Population (2020): 301,695	Per Capita GDP (2020): US$ 3,090
IMF quota: SDR 23.8 million (0.01 percent of total)	Literacy rate (2018): 87.5 percent
Main products and exports: Kava, coconut oil, copra, cocoa, beef
Key export markets: New Caledonia, Australia, New Zealand

					2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
						Estimates	Projections
Output and prices (annual percent change)
		Real GDP			2.9	3.9	-6.8	1.2	3.0	4.1
		Consumer prices (period average)			2.4	2.7	5.7	5.4	2.6	2.3
		Consumer prices (end period)			1.9	3.5	7.0	3.9	2.3	2.2
Government finance (in percent of GDP)
	Total revenue				39.5	38.5	44.2	40.6	34.2	32.1
			Taxes		18.4	17.6	14.6	16.1	16.5	17.0
			Other revenue		12.0	13.9	16.0	11.2	9.7	8.7
			Grants		9.2	7.0	13.6	13.2	8.0	6.4
	Expenditure				33.3	31.8	44.4	44.0	38.3	36.1
			Expense		26.9	28.5	37.8	36.4	29.6	29.0
			Net acquisition of non financial assets		6.4	3.3	6.6	7.6	8.7	7.1
	Net lending (+)/borrowing (-)				6.3	6.7	-0.1	-3.5	-4.1	-4.0
	Public and publicly-guaranteed debt (end of period)				49.2	46.1	50.1	47.5	50.2	51.4
			Domestic		7.3	6.1	9.3	8.0	6.7	5.7
			External		41.9	40.1	40.8	39.4	43.5	45.8
	Money and credit (annual percentage change)
		Broad money (M2)			-0.5	9.2	5.3	-3.0	3.8	6.0
		Net foreign assets			39.0	24.2	16.9	0.0	5.2	6.3
		Domestic credit			-4.4	-6.4	-9.5	-6.8	-1.3	1.6
				Of which: Credit to private sector	1.2	0.4	1.5	-3.2	0.8	1.8
Interest rates (in percent, end of period) ^1/
	Deposit rate (vatu deposits)				1.2	0.8	0.7	…	…	…
	Lending rate (vatu loans)				0.0	0.0	0.0	…	…	…
Balance of payments (in percent of GDP)
	Current account				12.2	16.0	3.3	-6.9	-8.0	-5.7
			Trade balance		-26.2	-29.5	-23.5	-23.3	-24.3	-26.1
				Exports of goods	6.9	4.9	5.2	5.3	5.4	5.4
				Imports of goods	-33.1	-34.4	-28.7	-28.5	-29.7	-31.5
			Travel receipts		32.3	29.8	7.2	0.6	4.4	11.3
	Capital and financial account				-16.0	-6.5	3.5	11.4	9.4	7.9
			Of which: Foreign direct investment		3.9	2.7	2.6	2.9	3.0	2.9
	Overall balance				2.7	9.8	10.9	4.5	1.4	2.2
	Gross international reserves (in millions of U.S. dollars)				420.6	511.6	613.6	658.2	673.0	697.7
			Gross international reserves (in months of prospective G&S imports)		9.6	13.3	15.3	14.7	13.3	11.8
External debt service (in percent of GNFS exports)					4.0	6.7	18.7	31.5	11.1	7.8
Exchange rates ^2/
		Vatu per U.S. dollar (period average)			108.5	115.6	109.1	…	…	…
		Vatu per U.S. dollar (end of period)			112.3	114.3	108.0	…	…	…
Memorandum items:
		Nominal GDP (in billions of vatu)			100.8	107.2	101.7	107.0	112.6	119.8
		Nominal GDP (in millions of U.S. dollars)			928	928	932	999	1,060	1,127

Sources: Vanuatu authorities; and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Weighted average rate of interest for total bank deposits and loans.

^{^2/}The vatu is officially pegged to an undisclosed basket of currencies.

^{Table 1.}

Vanuatu: Selected Economic Indicators, 2018–2023

Population (2020): 301,695	Per Capita GDP (2020): US$ 3,090
IMF quota: SDR 23.8 million (0.01 percent of total)	Literacy rate (2018): 87.5 percent
Main products and exports: Kava, coconut oil, copra, cocoa, beef
Key export markets: New Caledonia, Australia, New Zealand

					2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
						Estimates	Projections
Output and prices (annual percent change)
		Real GDP			2.9	3.9	-6.8	1.2	3.0	4.1
		Consumer prices (period average)			2.4	2.7	5.7	5.4	2.6	2.3
		Consumer prices (end period)			1.9	3.5	7.0	3.9	2.3	2.2
Government finance (in percent of GDP)
	Total revenue				39.5	38.5	44.2	40.6	34.2	32.1
			Taxes		18.4	17.6	14.6	16.1	16.5	17.0
			Other revenue		12.0	13.9	16.0	11.2	9.7	8.7
			Grants		9.2	7.0	13.6	13.2	8.0	6.4
	Expenditure				33.3	31.8	44.4	44.0	38.3	36.1
			Expense		26.9	28.5	37.8	36.4	29.6	29.0
			Net acquisition of non financial assets		6.4	3.3	6.6	7.6	8.7	7.1
	Net lending (+)/borrowing (-)				6.3	6.7	-0.1	-3.5	-4.1	-4.0
	Public and publicly-guaranteed debt (end of period)				49.2	46.1	50.1	47.5	50.2	51.4
			Domestic		7.3	6.1	9.3	8.0	6.7	5.7
			External		41.9	40.1	40.8	39.4	43.5	45.8
	Money and credit (annual percentage change)
		Broad money (M2)			-0.5	9.2	5.3	-3.0	3.8	6.0
		Net foreign assets			39.0	24.2	16.9	0.0	5.2	6.3
		Domestic credit			-4.4	-6.4	-9.5	-6.8	-1.3	1.6
				Of which: Credit to private sector	1.2	0.4	1.5	-3.2	0.8	1.8
Interest rates (in percent, end of period) ^1/
	Deposit rate (vatu deposits)				1.2	0.8	0.7	…	…	…
	Lending rate (vatu loans)				0.0	0.0	0.0	…	…	…
Balance of payments (in percent of GDP)
	Current account				12.2	16.0	3.3	-6.9	-8.0	-5.7
			Trade balance		-26.2	-29.5	-23.5	-23.3	-24.3	-26.1
				Exports of goods	6.9	4.9	5.2	5.3	5.4	5.4
				Imports of goods	-33.1	-34.4	-28.7	-28.5	-29.7	-31.5
			Travel receipts		32.3	29.8	7.2	0.6	4.4	11.3
	Capital and financial account				-16.0	-6.5	3.5	11.4	9.4	7.9
			Of which: Foreign direct investment		3.9	2.7	2.6	2.9	3.0	2.9
	Overall balance				2.7	9.8	10.9	4.5	1.4	2.2
	Gross international reserves (in millions of U.S. dollars)				420.6	511.6	613.6	658.2	673.0	697.7
			Gross international reserves (in months of prospective G&S imports)		9.6	13.3	15.3	14.7	13.3	11.8
External debt service (in percent of GNFS exports)					4.0	6.7	18.7	31.5	11.1	7.8
Exchange rates ^2/
		Vatu per U.S. dollar (period average)			108.5	115.6	109.1	…	…	…
		Vatu per U.S. dollar (end of period)			112.3	114.3	108.0	…	…	…
Memorandum items:
		Nominal GDP (in billions of vatu)			100.8	107.2	101.7	107.0	112.6	119.8
		Nominal GDP (in millions of U.S. dollars)			928	928	932	999	1,060	1,127

Sources: Vanuatu authorities; and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Weighted average rate of interest for total bank deposits and loans.

^{^2/}The vatu is officially pegged to an undisclosed basket of currencies.

^{Table 2.}

Vanuatu: Central Government Budgetary Operations, 2018–2023^{^1/}

Sources: Vanuatu authorities; and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Fiscal year corresponds to the calendar year.

^{^2/}Includes Aid in Kind

^{^3/}Does not include consumption of fixed capital (depreciation).

^{^4/}Gross operating balance is used instead of net, as there is no data on consumption of fixed capital (depreciation).

^{^5/}Defined as domestic revenue minus government-funded expense and acquisition of nonfinancial assets.

^{Table 2.}

Vanuatu: Central Government Budgetary Operations, 2018–2023^{^1/}

					2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
							Estimates	Projections
					(In millions of vatu)
Total revenue					39,813	41,250	45,000	43,382	38,557	38,460
	Domestic revenue				30,591	33,753	31,186	29,214	29,519	30,788
		Taxes			18,541	18,836	14,896	17,272	18,635	20,413
			Taxes on property		582	648	602	633	667	709
			Taxes on goods and services		13,919	14,565	11,161	13,023	14,049	15,416
			Taxes on international trade		4,039	3,623	3,133	3,616	3,920	4,288
		Other revenue			12,050	14,917	16,290	11,942	10,884	10,375
			Of which: Economic citizenship programs		9,954	12,558	14,352	9,048	7,837	7,135
	Grants from development partners ^{^2/}				9,223	7,497	13,814	14,168	9,038	7,672
Expenditure					33,510	34, 111	45,138	47,104	43,141	43,260
	Expense ^{^3/}				27,109	30,537	38,405	38,936	33,349	34,741
		Compensation of employees			12,838	14,036	15,659	16,507	16,939	17,332
		Use of goods and services			7,695	9,488	10,144	9,813	9,769	10,387
		Interest payment			921	971	888	1,001	989	1,013
		Subsidies			116	194	1,501	1,622	130	139
		Grants by central government			2,621	2,499	3,996	3,507	2,679	2,848
		Social benefits			1,049	733	940	881	928	987
		Other expense ^{^2/}			1,870	2,616	5,277	5,605	1,915	2,036
	Acquisition of nonfinancial assets ^{^3/}				6,401	3,574	6,733	8,168	9,792	8,519
Gross operating balance ^{^4/}					12,704	10,713	6,595	4,446	5,208	3,720
Domestic fiscal balance ^{^5/}					7,741	7,172	658	-1,691	138	258
Net lending (+)/borrowing (-))					6,303	7,139	-138	-3,722	-4, 584	-4,800
	Net acquisition of financial assets				8,502	7,238	1,720	-3,011	1,435	461
	Net incurrence of liabilities				3,509	-154	1,536	710	6,019	5,260
		Domestic			-1,616	-673	2,419	-908	-984	-829
		Foreign			5,124	519	-883	1,619	7,003	6,090
				Amortization	1,463	2,460	2,886	3,307	1,390	1,473
				Borrowing	6,587	2,979	2,003	4,926	8,393	7,563
Memorandum items:
Public debt					49,542	49,448	50,979	50,767	56,543	61,560
	Domestic				6,267	5,594	8,013	7,104	6,120	5,291
	External				42,236	42,956	41,489	42,185	48,945	54,792
		Publicly guaranteed			1,040	898	1,477	1,477	1,477	1,477
	Debt service				4,000	4,104	5,231	5,217	3,491	3,601
			External debt service		1,900	2,933	3,383	3,748	1,882	2,058
	Primary balance				7,225	8,110	750	-2,720	-3,595	-3,787
					(In percent of GDP)
Total revenue					39.5	38.5	44.2	40.6	34.2	32.1
	Domestic revenue				30.4	31.5	30.7	27.3	26.2	25.7
		Taxes			18.4	17.6	14.6	16.1	16.5	17.0
		Other revenue			12.0	13.9	16.0	11.2	9.7	8.7
			Of which: Economic citizenship programs		9.9	11.7	14.1	8.5	7.0	6.0
	Grants from development partners				9.2	7.0	13.6	13.2	8.0	6.4
Expenditure					33.3	31.8	44.4	44.0	38.3	36.1
	Expense ^{^3/}				26.9	28.5	37.8	36.4	29.6	29.0
		Compensation of employees			12.7	13.1	15.4	15.4	15.0	14.5
		Use of goods and services			7.6	8.8	10.0	9.2	8.7	8.7
		Interest payment			0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.8
		Subsidies			0.1	0.2	1.5	1.5	0.1	0.1
		Grants by central government			2.6	2.3	3.9	3.3	2.4	2.4
		Social benefits			1.0	0.7	0.9	0.8	0.8	0.8
		Other expense			1.9	2.4	5.2	5.2	1.7	1.7
	Acquisition of nonfinancial assets ^{^3/}				6.4	3.3	6.6	7.6	8.7	7.1
Gross operating balance ^{^4/}					12.6	10.0	6.5	4.2	4.6	3.1
Domestic fiscal balance ^{^5/}					7.7	6.7	0.6	-1.6	0.1	0.2
Net lending (+)/borrowing (-)					6.3	6.7	-0.1	-3.5	-4.1	-4.0
	Net acquisition of financial assets				8.4	6.8	1.7	-2.8	1.3	0.4
	Net incurrence of liabilities				3.5	-0.1	1.5	0.7	5.3	4.4
Memorandum items:
Public and publicly-guaranteed debt					49.2	46.1	50.1	47.5	50.2	51.4
	Domestic				7.3	6.1	9.3	8.0	6.7	5.7
	External				41.9	40.1	40.8	39.4	43.5	45.8
		Of which: RCF/RFI			1.6	1.1	0.9	0.6	0.4	0.2
Debt service					4.0	3.8	5.1	4.9	3.1	3.0
	Of which: External debt service				1.9	2.7	3.3	3.5	1.7	1.7
Primary balance					7.2	7.6	0.7	-2.5	-3.2	-3.2
Nominal GDP (millions of vatu)					100,771	107,220	101,713	106,979	112,632	119,758

Sources: Vanuatu authorities; and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Fiscal year corresponds to the calendar year.

^{^2/}Includes Aid in Kind

^{^3/}Does not include consumption of fixed capital (depreciation).

^{^4/}Gross operating balance is used instead of net, as there is no data on consumption of fixed capital (depreciation).

^{^5/}Defined as domestic revenue minus government-funded expense and acquisition of nonfinancial assets.

^{Table 2.}

Vanuatu: Central Government Budgetary Operations, 2018–2023^{^1/}

					2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
							Estimates	Projections
					(In millions of vatu)
Total revenue					39,813	41,250	45,000	43,382	38,557	38,460
	Domestic revenue				30,591	33,753	31,186	29,214	29,519	30,788
		Taxes			18,541	18,836	14,896	17,272	18,635	20,413
			Taxes on property		582	648	602	633	667	709
			Taxes on goods and services		13,919	14,565	11,161	13,023	14,049	15,416
			Taxes on international trade		4,039	3,623	3,133	3,616	3,920	4,288
		Other revenue			12,050	14,917	16,290	11,942	10,884	10,375
			Of which: Economic citizenship programs		9,954	12,558	14,352	9,048	7,837	7,135
	Grants from development partners ^{^2/}				9,223	7,497	13,814	14,168	9,038	7,672
Expenditure					33,510	34, 111	45,138	47,104	43,141	43,260
	Expense ^{^3/}				27,109	30,537	38,405	38,936	33,349	34,741
		Compensation of employees			12,838	14,036	15,659	16,507	16,939	17,332
		Use of goods and services			7,695	9,488	10,144	9,813	9,769	10,387
		Interest payment			921	971	888	1,001	989	1,013
		Subsidies			116	194	1,501	1,622	130	139
		Grants by central government			2,621	2,499	3,996	3,507	2,679	2,848
		Social benefits			1,049	733	940	881	928	987
		Other expense ^{^2/}			1,870	2,616	5,277	5,605	1,915	2,036
	Acquisition of nonfinancial assets ^{^3/}				6,401	3,574	6,733	8,168	9,792	8,519
Gross operating balance ^{^4/}					12,704	10,713	6,595	4,446	5,208	3,720
Domestic fiscal balance ^{^5/}					7,741	7,172	658	-1,691	138	258
Net lending (+)/borrowing (-))					6,303	7,139	-138	-3,722	-4, 584	-4,800
	Net acquisition of financial assets				8,502	7,238	1,720	-3,011	1,435	461
	Net incurrence of liabilities				3,509	-154	1,536	710	6,019	5,260
		Domestic			-1,616	-673	2,419	-908	-984	-829
		Foreign			5,124	519	-883	1,619	7,003	6,090
				Amortization	1,463	2,460	2,886	3,307	1,390	1,473
				Borrowing	6,587	2,979	2,003	4,926	8,393	7,563
Memorandum items:
Public debt					49,542	49,448	50,979	50,767	56,543	61,560
	Domestic				6,267	5,594	8,013	7,104	6,120	5,291
	External				42,236	42,956	41,489	42,185	48,945	54,792
		Publicly guaranteed			1,040	898	1,477	1,477	1,477	1,477
	Debt service				4,000	4,104	5,231	5,217	3,491	3,601
			External debt service		1,900	2,933	3,383	3,748	1,882	2,058
	Primary balance				7,225	8,110	750	-2,720	-3,595	-3,787
					(In percent of GDP)
Total revenue					39.5	38.5	44.2	40.6	34.2	32.1
	Domestic revenue				30.4	31.5	30.7	27.3	26.2	25.7
		Taxes			18.4	17.6	14.6	16.1	16.5	17.0
		Other revenue			12.0	13.9	16.0	11.2	9.7	8.7
			Of which: Economic citizenship programs		9.9	11.7	14.1	8.5	7.0	6.0
	Grants from development partners				9.2	7.0	13.6	13.2	8.0	6.4
Expenditure					33.3	31.8	44.4	44.0	38.3	36.1
	Expense ^{^3/}				26.9	28.5	37.8	36.4	29.6	29.0
		Compensation of employees			12.7	13.1	15.4	15.4	15.0	14.5
		Use of goods and services			7.6	8.8	10.0	9.2	8.7	8.7
		Interest payment			0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.8
		Subsidies			0.1	0.2	1.5	1.5	0.1	0.1
		Grants by central government			2.6	2.3	3.9	3.3	2.4	2.4
		Social benefits			1.0	0.7	0.9	0.8	0.8	0.8
		Other expense			1.9	2.4	5.2	5.2	1.7	1.7
	Acquisition of nonfinancial assets ^{^3/}				6.4	3.3	6.6	7.6	8.7	7.1
Gross operating balance ^{^4/}					12.6	10.0	6.5	4.2	4.6	3.1
Domestic fiscal balance ^{^5/}					7.7	6.7	0.6	-1.6	0.1	0.2
Net lending (+)/borrowing (-)					6.3	6.7	-0.1	-3.5	-4.1	-4.0
	Net acquisition of financial assets				8.4	6.8	1.7	-2.8	1.3	0.4
	Net incurrence of liabilities				3.5	-0.1	1.5	0.7	5.3	4.4
Memorandum items:
Public and publicly-guaranteed debt					49.2	46.1	50.1	47.5	50.2	51.4
	Domestic				7.3	6.1	9.3	8.0	6.7	5.7
	External				41.9	40.1	40.8	39.4	43.5	45.8
		Of which: RCF/RFI			1.6	1.1	0.9	0.6	0.4	0.2
Debt service					4.0	3.8	5.1	4.9	3.1	3.0
	Of which: External debt service				1.9	2.7	3.3	3.5	1.7	1.7
Primary balance					7.2	7.6	0.7	-2.5	-3.2	-3.2
Nominal GDP (millions of vatu)					100,771	107,220	101,713	106,979	112,632	119,758

Sources: Vanuatu authorities; and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Fiscal year corresponds to the calendar year.

^{^2/}Includes Aid in Kind

^{^3/}Does not include consumption of fixed capital (depreciation).

^{^4/}Gross operating balance is used instead of net, as there is no data on consumption of fixed capital (depreciation).

^{^5/}Defined as domestic revenue minus government-funded expense and acquisition of nonfinancial assets.

^{Table 3.}

Vanuatu: Reconciling the Domestic Budget with the IMF Presentation, 2018–2023^{^1/}

Sources: Vanuatu authorities; and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Fiscal year corresponds to the calendar year.

^{Table 3.}

Vanuatu: Reconciling the Domestic Budget with the IMF Presentation, 2018–2023^{^1/}

		2018	2019	2020	2021	2022
				Est.	Projections
*Domestic budget (excluding development partners)*
	(In millions of vatu)
Revenue (excluding development partner grants)	30,591	33,753	31,186	29,214	29,519	30,788
- Expense (excluding development partners)	22,227	25,580	30,225	30,051	28,482	29,574
= Gross operating balance (excluding development partners)	8,364	8,173	961	-837	1,037	1,214
- Acquisition of non-financial assets (excluding development partners)	622	1,001	303	854	899	956
= Net lending/borrowing (excluding development partners)	7,741	7,172	658	-1,691	138	258
	(In percent of GDP)
Revenue (excluding development partner grants)	30.4	31.5	30.7	27.3	26.2	25.7
- Expenses (excluding development partners)	22.1	23.9	29.7	28.1	25.3	24.7
= Gross operating balance (excluding development partners)	8.3	7.6	0.9	-0.8	0.9	1.0
- Fixed assets (excluding development partners)	0.6	0.9	0.3	0.8	0.8	0.8
= Net lending/borrowing (excluding development partners)	7.7	6.7	0.6	-1.6	0.1	0.2
*Consolidated budget (including development partners)*
	(In millions of vatu)
Gross operating balance (excluding development partners)	8,364	8,173	961	-837	1,037	1,214
+ Additional revenues (development partners grants)	9,223	7,497	13,814	14,168	9,038	7,672
- Additional expenses (using development partner grants and/or loans)	4,882	4,957	8,180	8,885	4,867	5,166
= Gross operating balance (overall)	12,704	10,713	6,595	4,446	5,208	3,720
- Fixed assets (excluding development partners)	622	1,001	303	854	899	956
- Fixed assets (using development partner loans)	5,779	2,573	6,430	7,314	8,893	7,563
= Net lending/borrowing (overall)	6,303	7,139	-138	-3,722	-4,584	-4,800
	(In percent of GDP)
Gross operating balance (excluding development partners)	8.3	7.6	0.9	-0.8	0.9	1.0
+ Additional revenues (development partners grants)	9.2	7.0	13.6	13.2	8.0	6.4
- Additional expenses (using development partner grants and/or loans)	4.8	4.6	8.0	8.3	4.3	4.3
= Gross operating balance (overall)	12.6	10.0	6.5	4.2	4.6	3.1
- Acquisition of non-financial assets (excluding development partners)	0.6	0.9	0.3	0.8	0.8	0.8
- Acquisition of non-financial assets (using development partners’ loans)	5.7	2.4	6.3	6.8	7.9	6.3
= Net lending/borrowing (overall)	6.3	6.7	-0.1	-3.5	-4.1	-4.0
Memorandum items:
Nominal GDP (millions of vatu)	100,771	107,220	101,713	106,979	112,632	119,758

Sources: Vanuatu authorities; and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Fiscal year corresponds to the calendar year.

^{Table 3.}

Vanuatu: Reconciling the Domestic Budget with the IMF Presentation, 2018–2023^{^1/}

		2018	2019	2020	2021	2022
				Est.	Projections
*Domestic budget (excluding development partners)*
	(In millions of vatu)
Revenue (excluding development partner grants)	30,591	33,753	31,186	29,214	29,519	30,788
- Expense (excluding development partners)	22,227	25,580	30,225	30,051	28,482	29,574
= Gross operating balance (excluding development partners)	8,364	8,173	961	-837	1,037	1,214
- Acquisition of non-financial assets (excluding development partners)	622	1,001	303	854	899	956
= Net lending/borrowing (excluding development partners)	7,741	7,172	658	-1,691	138	258
	(In percent of GDP)
Revenue (excluding development partner grants)	30.4	31.5	30.7	27.3	26.2	25.7
- Expenses (excluding development partners)	22.1	23.9	29.7	28.1	25.3	24.7
= Gross operating balance (excluding development partners)	8.3	7.6	0.9	-0.8	0.9	1.0
- Fixed assets (excluding development partners)	0.6	0.9	0.3	0.8	0.8	0.8
= Net lending/borrowing (excluding development partners)	7.7	6.7	0.6	-1.6	0.1	0.2
*Consolidated budget (including development partners)*
	(In millions of vatu)
Gross operating balance (excluding development partners)	8,364	8,173	961	-837	1,037	1,214
+ Additional revenues (development partners grants)	9,223	7,497	13,814	14,168	9,038	7,672
- Additional expenses (using development partner grants and/or loans)	4,882	4,957	8,180	8,885	4,867	5,166
= Gross operating balance (overall)	12,704	10,713	6,595	4,446	5,208	3,720
- Fixed assets (excluding development partners)	622	1,001	303	854	899	956
- Fixed assets (using development partner loans)	5,779	2,573	6,430	7,314	8,893	7,563
= Net lending/borrowing (overall)	6,303	7,139	-138	-3,722	-4,584	-4,800
	(In percent of GDP)
Gross operating balance (excluding development partners)	8.3	7.6	0.9	-0.8	0.9	1.0
+ Additional revenues (development partners grants)	9.2	7.0	13.6	13.2	8.0	6.4
- Additional expenses (using development partner grants and/or loans)	4.8	4.6	8.0	8.3	4.3	4.3
= Gross operating balance (overall)	12.6	10.0	6.5	4.2	4.6	3.1
- Acquisition of non-financial assets (excluding development partners)	0.6	0.9	0.3	0.8	0.8	0.8
- Acquisition of non-financial assets (using development partners’ loans)	5.7	2.4	6.3	6.8	7.9	6.3
= Net lending/borrowing (overall)	6.3	6.7	-0.1	-3.5	-4.1	-4.0
Memorandum items:
Nominal GDP (millions of vatu)	100,771	107,220	101,713	106,979	112,632	119,758

Sources: Vanuatu authorities; and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Fiscal year corresponds to the calendar year.

^{Table 4.}

Vanuatu: Monetary Survey, 2018–2023

Sources: Vanuatu authorities, and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{Table 4.}

Vanuatu: Monetary Survey, 2018–2023

					2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
								Projections
					(In millions of vatu; end of period)
Net foreign assets					53,975	67,017	78,334	78,353	82,465	87,675
	Monetary authorities				46,896	55,212	65,477	70,208	71,785	74,409
	Commercial banks				7,080	11,805	12,858	8,145	10,680	13,265
Net domestic assets					30,498	25,265	18,819	15,896	15,378	16,026
	Domestic credit				50,607	47,349	42,842	39,920	39,401	40,049
		Claims on government (net)			-12,291	-15,803	-21,116	-22,024	-23,009	-23,838
		Claims on municipalities			76	67	37	59	59	59
		Claims on other sectors			62,822	63,085	63,921	61,884	62,350	63,828
				Claims on nonfinancial public enterprises	1,034	1,067	949	906	862	1,212
				Claims on private sector	61,788	62,017	62,972	60,979	61,488	62,615
	Other items (net)				-20,109	-22,084	-24,023	-24,023	-24,023	-24,023
Total broad money (M2)					84,473	92,282	97,154	94,249	97,843	103,701
	Narrow money				55,063	62,949	67,667	61,780	68,169	76,697
			Currency outside banks		8,582	9,345	10,384	-2,900	-4,862	-5,763
			Demand deposits		46,481	53,603	57,284	64,680	73,031	82,461
	Quasi-money				29,410	29,334	29,486	32,469	29,673	27,004
					(Annual percentage change, unless otherwise indicated)
Net foreign assets					39.0	24.2	16.9	0.0	5.2	6.3
Net domestic assets					-33.8	-17.2	-25.5	-15.5	-3.3	4.2
	Domestic credit				-4.4	-6.4	-9.5	-6.8	-1.3	1.6
			Credit to the economy		0.8	0.4	1.3	-3.2	0.8	2.4
				Private sector credit	1.2	0.4	1.5	-3.2	0.8	1.8
Total broad money					-0.5	9.2	5.3	-3.0	3.8	6.0
Vatu broad money					0.8	9.4	5.2	-4.5	5.4	7.7
Memorandum items:
Vatu broad money multiplier					1.4	1.3	1.3	1.4	1.3	1.2
Total broad money multiplier Velocity					1.5	1.5	1.4	1.5	1.4	1.4
	Narrow money				2.1	1.7	1.6	1.7	1.7	1.7
	Vatu broad money				1.3	1.3	1.2	1.3	1.3	1.3
	Total broad money				1.2	1.2	1.1	1.1	1.2	1.2
Reserve money (in millions of vatu)					45,913	45,886	47,681	51,682	53,129	55,916
Reserve money (annual percentage change)					8.7	-0.1	3.9	8.4	2.8	5.2
Credit to private sector (in percent of GDP)					61.3	57.8	61.9	57.0	54.6	52.3
Foreign currency deposits (annual percentage change)					11.7	4.7	5.8	10.1	-8.6	-9.0
Foreign currency deposits/total deposits (percent)					11.3	11.1	11.3	11.1	9.6	8.2
Foreign currency credit/total credit (percent)					31.9	29.8	28.4	28.4	28.4	28.4
Net foreign assets of banks (in millions of U.S. dollars)					63.1	103.3	119.1	76.7	100.5	124.9
Net foreign assets (in percent of GDP)					53.6	62.5	77.0	73.2	73.2	73.2
Nominal GDP (in millions of vatu)					100,771	107,220	101,713	106,979	112,632	119,758

Sources: Vanuatu authorities, and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{Table 4.}

Vanuatu: Monetary Survey, 2018–2023

					2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
								Projections
					(In millions of vatu; end of period)
Net foreign assets					53,975	67,017	78,334	78,353	82,465	87,675
	Monetary authorities				46,896	55,212	65,477	70,208	71,785	74,409
	Commercial banks				7,080	11,805	12,858	8,145	10,680	13,265
Net domestic assets					30,498	25,265	18,819	15,896	15,378	16,026
	Domestic credit				50,607	47,349	42,842	39,920	39,401	40,049
		Claims on government (net)			-12,291	-15,803	-21,116	-22,024	-23,009	-23,838
		Claims on municipalities			76	67	37	59	59	59
		Claims on other sectors			62,822	63,085	63,921	61,884	62,350	63,828
				Claims on nonfinancial public enterprises	1,034	1,067	949	906	862	1,212
				Claims on private sector	61,788	62,017	62,972	60,979	61,488	62,615
	Other items (net)				-20,109	-22,084	-24,023	-24,023	-24,023	-24,023
Total broad money (M2)					84,473	92,282	97,154	94,249	97,843	103,701
	Narrow money				55,063	62,949	67,667	61,780	68,169	76,697
			Currency outside banks		8,582	9,345	10,384	-2,900	-4,862	-5,763
			Demand deposits		46,481	53,603	57,284	64,680	73,031	82,461
	Quasi-money				29,410	29,334	29,486	32,469	29,673	27,004
					(Annual percentage change, unless otherwise indicated)
Net foreign assets					39.0	24.2	16.9	0.0	5.2	6.3
Net domestic assets					-33.8	-17.2	-25.5	-15.5	-3.3	4.2
	Domestic credit				-4.4	-6.4	-9.5	-6.8	-1.3	1.6
			Credit to the economy		0.8	0.4	1.3	-3.2	0.8	2.4
				Private sector credit	1.2	0.4	1.5	-3.2	0.8	1.8
Total broad money					-0.5	9.2	5.3	-3.0	3.8	6.0
Vatu broad money					0.8	9.4	5.2	-4.5	5.4	7.7
Memorandum items:
Vatu broad money multiplier					1.4	1.3	1.3	1.4	1.3	1.2
Total broad money multiplier Velocity					1.5	1.5	1.4	1.5	1.4	1.4
	Narrow money				2.1	1.7	1.6	1.7	1.7	1.7
	Vatu broad money				1.3	1.3	1.2	1.3	1.3	1.3
	Total broad money				1.2	1.2	1.1	1.1	1.2	1.2
Reserve money (in millions of vatu)					45,913	45,886	47,681	51,682	53,129	55,916
Reserve money (annual percentage change)					8.7	-0.1	3.9	8.4	2.8	5.2
Credit to private sector (in percent of GDP)					61.3	57.8	61.9	57.0	54.6	52.3
Foreign currency deposits (annual percentage change)					11.7	4.7	5.8	10.1	-8.6	-9.0
Foreign currency deposits/total deposits (percent)					11.3	11.1	11.3	11.1	9.6	8.2
Foreign currency credit/total credit (percent)					31.9	29.8	28.4	28.4	28.4	28.4
Net foreign assets of banks (in millions of U.S. dollars)					63.1	103.3	119.1	76.7	100.5	124.9
Net foreign assets (in percent of GDP)					53.6	62.5	77.0	73.2	73.2	73.2
Nominal GDP (in millions of vatu)					100,771	107,220	101,713	106,979	112,632	119,758

Sources: Vanuatu authorities, and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{Table 5.}

Vanuatu: Balance of Payments, 2018–2023

(In percent of GDP, unless otherwise stated)

Sources: Vanuatu authorities; and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{Table 5.}

Vanuatu: Balance of Payments, 2018–2023

(In percent of GDP, unless otherwise stated)

				2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
						Est	Projections
Current account balance				12.2	16.0	3.3	-6.9	-8.0	-5.7
Trade balance				-26.2	-29.5	-23.5	-23.3	-24.3	-26.1
	Exports of goods (f.o.b.)			6.9	4.9	5.2	5.3	5.4	5.4
		Domestic exports		4.8	4.7	4.6	4.8	4.9	4.9
		Re-exports		2.1	0.2	0.7	0.5	0.5	0.5
	Imports of goods (f.o.b.)			-33.1	-34.4	-28.7	-28.5	-29.7	-31.5
Services balance				23.1	20.7	-2.6	-8.3	-5.3	0.5
	Receipts			40.3	36.2	12.6	5.9	9.7	16.5
		Of which: travel		32.3	29.8	7.2	0.6	4.4	11.3
	Payments			-17.2	-15.5	-15.2	-14.2	-15.0	-16.0
Primary income				3.0	7.9	10.2	9.4	10.9	11.0
	Receipts			7.1	11.1	12.4	11.5	13.1	13.1
	Payments			-4.1	-3.2	-2.2	-2.2	-2.1	-2.1
Secondary income				12.3	16.9	19.2	15.3	10.7	8.9
	Official			12.0	15.3	18.3	14.4	9.9	8.1
	Private			0.3	1.6	0.8	0.8	0.8	0.8
Capital and financial accounts				-16.0	-6.5	3.5	11.4	9.4	7.9
Capital account				4.3	6.5	5.7	4.2	4.0	3.5
	Of which : Official capital transfers (net)			3.8	5.5	4.7	3.3	3.1	2.7
Financial account				-20.3	-13.0	-2.2	7.2	5.4	4.3
	Foreign direct investment			3.9	2.7	2.6	2.9	3.0	2.9
	Portfolio investment			1.5	0.6	-1.0	-0.7	-0.7	-0.6
	Other investment			-25.7	-16.3	-3.8	5.0	3.1	2.0
Net errors and omissions				6.5	0.3	4.2	0.0	0.0	0.0
Overall balance				2.7	9.8	10.9	4.5	1.4	2.2
Financing:				-3.1	-10.4	-11.4	-4.7	-1.6	-2.4
			Change in international reserves (- = increase)	-2.7	-9.8	-10.9	-4.5	-1.4	-2.2
			IMF’s RCF/RFI	-0.3	-0.6	-0.4	-0.2	-0.2	-0.2
Memorandum items:
Gross international reserves				45.3	55.1	65.8	65.9	63.5	61.9
	In months of prospective imports			9.6	13.3	15.3	14.7	13.3	11.8
Net official reserves				45.9	52.5	64.9	…	…	…
Exports of goods (annual percentage change)				5.9	-29.4	7.9	7.9	8.9	6.3
Imports of goods (annual percentage change)				-2.8	3.8	-16.1	6.4	10.5	12.8
Exchange rate (vatu per U.S. dollar, period average)				108.5	115.6	109.1	…	…	…
Exchange rate (vatu per U.S. dollar, end of period)				112.3	114.3	108.0	…	…	…
Public external debt				41.9	40.1	40.8	39.4	43.5	45.8
Public external debt service (in percent of GNFS exports)				4.0	6.7	18.7	31.5	11.1	7.8
Nominal GDP				928	928	932	999	1060	1127

Sources: Vanuatu authorities; and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{Table 5.}

Vanuatu: Balance of Payments, 2018–2023

(In percent of GDP, unless otherwise stated)

				2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
						Est	Projections
Current account balance				12.2	16.0	3.3	-6.9	-8.0	-5.7
Trade balance				-26.2	-29.5	-23.5	-23.3	-24.3	-26.1
	Exports of goods (f.o.b.)			6.9	4.9	5.2	5.3	5.4	5.4
		Domestic exports		4.8	4.7	4.6	4.8	4.9	4.9
		Re-exports		2.1	0.2	0.7	0.5	0.5	0.5
	Imports of goods (f.o.b.)			-33.1	-34.4	-28.7	-28.5	-29.7	-31.5
Services balance				23.1	20.7	-2.6	-8.3	-5.3	0.5
	Receipts			40.3	36.2	12.6	5.9	9.7	16.5
		Of which: travel		32.3	29.8	7.2	0.6	4.4	11.3
	Payments			-17.2	-15.5	-15.2	-14.2	-15.0	-16.0
Primary income				3.0	7.9	10.2	9.4	10.9	11.0
	Receipts			7.1	11.1	12.4	11.5	13.1	13.1
	Payments			-4.1	-3.2	-2.2	-2.2	-2.1	-2.1
Secondary income				12.3	16.9	19.2	15.3	10.7	8.9
	Official			12.0	15.3	18.3	14.4	9.9	8.1
	Private			0.3	1.6	0.8	0.8	0.8	0.8
Capital and financial accounts				-16.0	-6.5	3.5	11.4	9.4	7.9
Capital account				4.3	6.5	5.7	4.2	4.0	3.5
	Of which : Official capital transfers (net)			3.8	5.5	4.7	3.3	3.1	2.7
Financial account				-20.3	-13.0	-2.2	7.2	5.4	4.3
	Foreign direct investment			3.9	2.7	2.6	2.9	3.0	2.9
	Portfolio investment			1.5	0.6	-1.0	-0.7	-0.7	-0.6
	Other investment			-25.7	-16.3	-3.8	5.0	3.1	2.0
Net errors and omissions				6.5	0.3	4.2	0.0	0.0	0.0
Overall balance				2.7	9.8	10.9	4.5	1.4	2.2
Financing:				-3.1	-10.4	-11.4	-4.7	-1.6	-2.4
			Change in international reserves (- = increase)	-2.7	-9.8	-10.9	-4.5	-1.4	-2.2
			IMF’s RCF/RFI	-0.3	-0.6	-0.4	-0.2	-0.2	-0.2
Memorandum items:
Gross international reserves				45.3	55.1	65.8	65.9	63.5	61.9
	In months of prospective imports			9.6	13.3	15.3	14.7	13.3	11.8
Net official reserves				45.9	52.5	64.9	…	…	…
Exports of goods (annual percentage change)				5.9	-29.4	7.9	7.9	8.9	6.3
Imports of goods (annual percentage change)				-2.8	3.8	-16.1	6.4	10.5	12.8
Exchange rate (vatu per U.S. dollar, period average)				108.5	115.6	109.1	…	…	…
Exchange rate (vatu per U.S. dollar, end of period)				112.3	114.3	108.0	…	…	…
Public external debt				41.9	40.1	40.8	39.4	43.5	45.8
Public external debt service (in percent of GNFS exports)				4.0	6.7	18.7	31.5	11.1	7.8
Nominal GDP				928	928	932	999	1060	1127

Sources: Vanuatu authorities; and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{Table 6.}

Vanuatu: Medium-Term Baseline Scenario, 2018–2026

Sources: Vanuatu authorities and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Does not include consumption of fixed capital (depreciation).

^{Table 6.}

Vanuatu: Medium-Term Baseline Scenario, 2018–2026

				2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023	2024	2025	2026
					Estimates	Projections
Output and prices (annual percentage change)
	Real GDP			2.9	3.9	-6.8	1.2	3.0	4.1	3.7	2.7	2.7
	Consumer prices (period average)			2.4	2.7	5.7	5.4	2.6	2.3	2.2	2.2	2.2
	Consumer prices (end period)			1.9	3.5	7.0	3.9	2.3	2.2	2.2	2.2	2.2
Government finances (in percent of GDP)
	Total revenue			39.5	38.5	44.2	40.6	34.2	32.1	31.6	31.0	30.6
		Taxes		18.4	17.6	14.6	16.1	16.5	17.0	17.3	17.3	17.3
		Other revenue		12.0	13.9	16.0	11.2	9.7	8.7	8.1	7.5	7.2
		Grants		9.2	7.0	13.6	13.2	8.0	6.4	6.2	6.2	6.1
	Expenditure			33.3	31.8	44.4	44.0	38.3	36.1	35.4	34.8	34.3
		Expense ^{^1/}		26.9	28.5	37.8	36.4	29.6	29.0	28.5	28.2	27.8
		Acquisition of nonfinancial assets ^{^1/}		6.4	3.3	6.6	7.6	8.7	7.1	6.9	6.6	6.4
	Net lending (+)/borrowing (-)			6.3	6.7	-0.1	-3.5	-4.1	-4.0	-3.7	-3.8	-3.7
	Public and publicly-guaranteed debt (end of period)			49.2	46.1	50.1	47.5	50.2	51.4	53.2	55.5	56.8
		Domestic		7.3	6.1	9.3	8.0	6.7	5.7	5.3	5.3	4.4
		External		41.9	40.1	40.8	39.4	43.5	45.8	47.9	50.2	52.3
			Of which: RCF/RFI	1.6	1.1	0.9	0.6	0.4	0.2	0.1	0.1	0.1
Balance of payments (in percent of GDP)
	Current account			12.2	16.0	3.3	-6.9	-8.0	-5.7	-4.4	-3.6	-4.1
		Trade balance		-26.2	-29.5	-23.5	-23.3	-24.3	-26.1	-29.3	-30.8	-30.7
			Exports of goods	6.9	4.9	5.2	5.3	5.4	5.4	5.4	5.4	5.4
			Imports of goods	-33.1	-34.4	-28.7	-28.5	-29.7	-31.5	-34.7	-36.2	-36.2
		Travel receipts		32.3	29.8	7.2	0.6	4.4	11.3	18.5	22.3	21.7
	Capital and financial account			-16.0	-6.5	3.5	11.4	9.4	7.9	6.6	6.6	6.5
		Of which: Foreign direct investment		3.9	2.7	2.6	2.9	3.0	2.9	2.9	3.1	3.2
	Overall balance			2.7	9.8	10.9	4.5	1.4	2.2	2.2	3.0	2.4
	Gross international reserves (in millions of U.S. dollars)			421	512	614	658	673	698	724	761	792
		(in months of prospective G&S imports)		9.6	13.3	15.3	14.7	13.3	11.8	11.1	11.1	11.0
	External debt service (in percent of GNFS exports)			4.0	6.7	18.7	31.5	11.1	7.8	5.8	5.3	5.5
Memorandum items:
	Nominal GDP (in billions of vatu)			100.8	107.2	101.7	107.0	112.6	119.8	126.8	133.1	139.7
	Nominal GDP (in millions of U.S. dollars)			928	928	932	999	1,060	1,127	1,194	1,253	1,315

Sources: Vanuatu authorities and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Does not include consumption of fixed capital (depreciation).

^{Table 6.}

Vanuatu: Medium-Term Baseline Scenario, 2018–2026

				2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023	2024	2025	2026
					Estimates	Projections
Output and prices (annual percentage change)
	Real GDP			2.9	3.9	-6.8	1.2	3.0	4.1	3.7	2.7	2.7
	Consumer prices (period average)			2.4	2.7	5.7	5.4	2.6	2.3	2.2	2.2	2.2
	Consumer prices (end period)			1.9	3.5	7.0	3.9	2.3	2.2	2.2	2.2	2.2
Government finances (in percent of GDP)
	Total revenue			39.5	38.5	44.2	40.6	34.2	32.1	31.6	31.0	30.6
		Taxes		18.4	17.6	14.6	16.1	16.5	17.0	17.3	17.3	17.3
		Other revenue		12.0	13.9	16.0	11.2	9.7	8.7	8.1	7.5	7.2
		Grants		9.2	7.0	13.6	13.2	8.0	6.4	6.2	6.2	6.1
	Expenditure			33.3	31.8	44.4	44.0	38.3	36.1	35.4	34.8	34.3
		Expense ^{^1/}		26.9	28.5	37.8	36.4	29.6	29.0	28.5	28.2	27.8
		Acquisition of nonfinancial assets ^{^1/}		6.4	3.3	6.6	7.6	8.7	7.1	6.9	6.6	6.4
	Net lending (+)/borrowing (-)			6.3	6.7	-0.1	-3.5	-4.1	-4.0	-3.7	-3.8	-3.7
	Public and publicly-guaranteed debt (end of period)			49.2	46.1	50.1	47.5	50.2	51.4	53.2	55.5	56.8
		Domestic		7.3	6.1	9.3	8.0	6.7	5.7	5.3	5.3	4.4
		External		41.9	40.1	40.8	39.4	43.5	45.8	47.9	50.2	52.3
			Of which: RCF/RFI	1.6	1.1	0.9	0.6	0.4	0.2	0.1	0.1	0.1
Balance of payments (in percent of GDP)
	Current account			12.2	16.0	3.3	-6.9	-8.0	-5.7	-4.4	-3.6	-4.1
		Trade balance		-26.2	-29.5	-23.5	-23.3	-24.3	-26.1	-29.3	-30.8	-30.7
			Exports of goods	6.9	4.9	5.2	5.3	5.4	5.4	5.4	5.4	5.4
			Imports of goods	-33.1	-34.4	-28.7	-28.5	-29.7	-31.5	-34.7	-36.2	-36.2
		Travel receipts		32.3	29.8	7.2	0.6	4.4	11.3	18.5	22.3	21.7
	Capital and financial account			-16.0	-6.5	3.5	11.4	9.4	7.9	6.6	6.6	6.5
		Of which: Foreign direct investment		3.9	2.7	2.6	2.9	3.0	2.9	2.9	3.1	3.2
	Overall balance			2.7	9.8	10.9	4.5	1.4	2.2	2.2	3.0	2.4
	Gross international reserves (in millions of U.S. dollars)			421	512	614	658	673	698	724	761	792
		(in months of prospective G&S imports)		9.6	13.3	15.3	14.7	13.3	11.8	11.1	11.1	11.0
	External debt service (in percent of GNFS exports)			4.0	6.7	18.7	31.5	11.1	7.8	5.8	5.3	5.5
Memorandum items:
	Nominal GDP (in billions of vatu)			100.8	107.2	101.7	107.0	112.6	119.8	126.8	133.1	139.7
	Nominal GDP (in millions of U.S. dollars)			928	928	932	999	1,060	1,127	1,194	1,253	1,315

Sources: Vanuatu authorities and IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Does not include consumption of fixed capital (depreciation).

^{Table 7.}

Vanuatu: Banks’ Financial Soundness Indicators, 2016–2021

Source: Reserve Bank of Vanuatu.

^{^1/}There are seasonal effects explaining the quarterly trend in the return on assets and return on equity as banks pay some non-interest expenses and overhead costs towards year end. Provisioning expenses also tend to be higher by year end.

^{Table 7.}

Vanuatu: Banks’ Financial Soundness Indicators, 2016–2021

		2016	2017	2018	2019	20202021Q1
Capital adequacy
	Regulatory capital to risk-weighted assets	19.3	18.0	20.1	19.2	20.0	21.8
	Regulatory Tier 1 capital to risk-weighted assets	16.4	15.6	16.3	17.9	18.9	20.3
Asset quality
	Nonperforming loans net of provisions to capital	42.2	57.1	52.2	42.5	57.5	57.5
	Nonperforming loans to total gross loans	11.2	15.6	16.0	14.4	19.0	18.2
Earnings and profitability
	Return on assets^1/	1.5	0.5	1.5	0.1	-0.1	1.1
	Return on equity^1/	11.5	3.8	13.0	0.9	-0.6	9.0
	Interest margin to gross income	64.3	63.6	65.3	65.1	68.0	69.0
	Noninterest expenses to gross income	64.4	63.2	63.3	70.4	78.1	78.8
Liquidity
	Liquid assets to total assets (liquid asset ratio)	32.9	35.5	45.2	43.6	44.0	43.4

Source: Reserve Bank of Vanuatu.

^{Table 7.}

Vanuatu: Banks’ Financial Soundness Indicators, 2016–2021

		2016	2017	2018	2019	20202021Q1
Capital adequacy
	Regulatory capital to risk-weighted assets	19.3	18.0	20.1	19.2	20.0	21.8
	Regulatory Tier 1 capital to risk-weighted assets	16.4	15.6	16.3	17.9	18.9	20.3
Asset quality
	Nonperforming loans net of provisions to capital	42.2	57.1	52.2	42.5	57.5	57.5
	Nonperforming loans to total gross loans	11.2	15.6	16.0	14.4	19.0	18.2
Earnings and profitability
	Return on assets^1/	1.5	0.5	1.5	0.1	-0.1	1.1
	Return on equity^1/	11.5	3.8	13.0	0.9	-0.6	9.0
	Interest margin to gross income	64.3	63.6	65.3	65.1	68.0	69.0
	Noninterest expenses to gross income	64.4	63.2	63.3	70.4	78.1	78.8
Liquidity
	Liquid assets to total assets (liquid asset ratio)	32.9	35.5	45.2	43.6	44.0	43.4

Source: Reserve Bank of Vanuatu.

^{Table 8.}

Vanuatu: Indicators of Capacity to Repay the Fund, 2020–2029

Source: IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Total debt service includes IMF repurchases and repayments.

^{Table 8.}

Vanuatu: Indicators of Capacity to Repay the Fund, 2020–2029

			2020	2021	2022	2023	2024	2025	2026	2027	2028	2029
			Est.	Projections
Total obligations based on existing and prospective credit
	In millions of SDRs		3.2	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.7	0.9	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
		Principal	3.0	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.7	0.9	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
		Charges and interest	0.2	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In millions of U.S. dollars		4.4	2.5	2.5	2.5	2.5	1.3	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of gross international reserves		0.7	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.3	0.2	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of government revenue		1.1	0.6	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.3	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of exports of goods and services		4.0	1.5	1.0	0.7	0.6	0.3	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of debt service ^1/		8.6	4.5	6.5	6.2	6.1	3.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of GDP		0.5	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of quota		18.6	10.1	10.1	10.1	10.1	5.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
Outstanding Fund credit
	In millions of SDRs		7.7	6.0	4.3	2.6	0.9	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In millions of U.S. dollars		10.7	8.6	6.2	3.7	1.2	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of gross international reserves		1.7	1.3	0.9	0.5	0.2	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of government revenue		2.6	2.1	1.7	1.0	0.3	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of exports of goods and services		9.6	5.4	2.5	1.1	0.3	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of debt service ^1/		20.7	15.7	16.2	9.2	3.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of GDP		1.1	0.9	0.6	0.3	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of quota		45.0	35.0	25.0	15.0	5.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Net use of Fund credit (in millions of SDRs)			-3.0	-1.7	-1.7	-1.7	-1.7	-0.9	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	Disbursements		0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
	Repayments and repurchases		-3.0	-1.7	-1.7	-1.7	-1.7	-0.9	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Memorandum items:
Nominal GDP (in millions of U.S. dollars)			932	999	1060	1127	1194	1253	1315	1377	1442	1510
Exports of goods and services (in millions of U.S. dollars)			111	160	247	348	413	425	448	472	497	520
Gross international reserves (in millions of U.S. dollars)			614	658	673	698	724	761	792	825	861	898
Government revenue (in millions of U.S. dollars)			413	405	363	362	378	389	402	416	432	451
Debt service (in millions of U.S. dollars)			51	55	38	41	41	42	43	46	47	50
U.S. dollars/SDR (period average)			1.39	1.45	1.46	1.46	1.47	1.47	1.48	1.48	1.48	1.48

Source: IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Total debt service includes IMF repurchases and repayments.

^{Table 8.}

Vanuatu: Indicators of Capacity to Repay the Fund, 2020–2029

			2020	2021	2022	2023	2024	2025	2026	2027	2028	2029
			Est.	Projections
Total obligations based on existing and prospective credit
	In millions of SDRs		3.2	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.7	0.9	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
		Principal	3.0	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.7	0.9	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
		Charges and interest	0.2	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In millions of U.S. dollars		4.4	2.5	2.5	2.5	2.5	1.3	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of gross international reserves		0.7	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.3	0.2	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of government revenue		1.1	0.6	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.3	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of exports of goods and services		4.0	1.5	1.0	0.7	0.6	0.3	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of debt service ^1/		8.6	4.5	6.5	6.2	6.1	3.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of GDP		0.5	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of quota		18.6	10.1	10.1	10.1	10.1	5.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
Outstanding Fund credit
	In millions of SDRs		7.7	6.0	4.3	2.6	0.9	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In millions of U.S. dollars		10.7	8.6	6.2	3.7	1.2	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of gross international reserves		1.7	1.3	0.9	0.5	0.2	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of government revenue		2.6	2.1	1.7	1.0	0.3	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of exports of goods and services		9.6	5.4	2.5	1.1	0.3	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of debt service ^1/		20.7	15.7	16.2	9.2	3.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of GDP		1.1	0.9	0.6	0.3	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	In percent of quota		45.0	35.0	25.0	15.0	5.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Net use of Fund credit (in millions of SDRs)			-3.0	-1.7	-1.7	-1.7	-1.7	-0.9	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
	Disbursements		0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
	Repayments and repurchases		-3.0	-1.7	-1.7	-1.7	-1.7	-0.9	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Memorandum items:
Nominal GDP (in millions of U.S. dollars)			932	999	1060	1127	1194	1253	1315	1377	1442	1510
Exports of goods and services (in millions of U.S. dollars)			111	160	247	348	413	425	448	472	497	520
Gross international reserves (in millions of U.S. dollars)			614	658	673	698	724	761	792	825	861	898
Government revenue (in millions of U.S. dollars)			413	405	363	362	378	389	402	416	432	451
Debt service (in millions of U.S. dollars)			51	55	38	41	41	42	43	46	47	50
U.S. dollars/SDR (period average)			1.39	1.45	1.46	1.46	1.47	1.47	1.48	1.48	1.48	1.48

Source: IMF staff estimates and projections.

^{^1/}Total debt service includes IMF repurchases and repayments.

^{Table 9.}

Vanuatu: Integration Matrix of Surveillance Issues and Capacity Building

^{^1/}IMF Fiscal year.

^{Table 9.}

Vanuatu: Integration Matrix of Surveillance Issues and Capacity Building

Surveillance issues		IMF			Asian Development Bank		World Bank
Surveillance issues		Past	2021^1/	Planned/ ongoing	Past	Planned/ ongoing	Past	Planned/ ongoing
Fiscal sector:
	Public financial management	✓	✓	✓			✓	✓
	Expenditure framework			✓
	Revenue framework	✓	✓	✓
Macro-financial issues:
	Financial supervision and regulation	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
	Financial market development				✓	✓
	Correspondent banking relationships		✓	✓		✓
Macro-structural issues:
	Infrastructure				✓	✓	✓	✓
	Private sector development				✓	✓
	Governance issues				✓	✓
	Poverty/gender/inequality
	Climate change
	Natural disaster management						✓	✓
	Financial inclusion				✓	✓
Statistics:
	Data enhancement	✓	✓	✓

^{^1/}IMF Fiscal year.

^{Table 9.}

Vanuatu: Integration Matrix of Surveillance Issues and Capacity Building

Surveillance issues		IMF			Asian Development Bank		World Bank
Surveillance issues		Past	2021^1/	Planned/ ongoing	Past	Planned/ ongoing	Past	Planned/ ongoing
Fiscal sector:
	Public financial management	✓	✓	✓			✓	✓
	Expenditure framework			✓
	Revenue framework	✓	✓	✓
Macro-financial issues:
	Financial supervision and regulation	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
	Financial market development				✓	✓
	Correspondent banking relationships		✓	✓		✓
Macro-structural issues:
	Infrastructure				✓	✓	✓	✓
	Private sector development				✓	✓
	Governance issues				✓	✓
	Poverty/gender/inequality
	Climate change
	Natural disaster management						✓	✓
	Financial inclusion				✓	✓
Statistics:
	Data enhancement	✓	✓	✓

^{^1/}IMF Fiscal year.

Annex I. Authorities Response to Fund Policy Advice

Fund Recommendation	Policy Actions
Fiscal Policy
Continue with revenue mobilization and expenditure prioritization to maintain debt sustainability. Proposed measures include i. Complete the proposed 2017 tax reforms to increase revenues. ii. Stabilize expenditure as a share of GDP. iii. Focus on grants and loans with higher concessionality. iv. Limit and prioritize loans, especially less concessional lending.	The authorities did not introduce income tax and pass the Tax administration Act. Established a national revenue governance committee to oversee the government’s efforts in expanding its revenue base. ECP revenue windfall used for debt repayments and signed new concessional loan and grant agreement for Climate Change Resilient Transport Project with World Bank IDA.
Strengthen the debt management framework.	The new national debt management strategy was passed through parliament in 2019 and are in place till 2022.
The authorities should aim for a 50 percent PPG debt-to-GDP target. The lower target would provide an additional buffer, of up to 10 percent of GDP, against fiscal risks from natural disasters as recommended by 2018 Article IV consultation.	The authorities adopted a public-and-publicly-guaranteed debt ceiling as 60 percent of GDP. This includes an implicit understanding that there should be a buffer left for responding to natural disasters.
Monetary Policy/Exchange Rate Policy
RBV should maintain an accommodative monetary policy stance but be ready to ease if necessary. Monetary policy should hold the course to maintain stable exchange rate and low inflation. Maintain the exchange rate basket peg at the current level for now but be ready to review and adjust the level and composition if external position worsens significantly.	In March 2020, the RBV reduced the policy rate from 2.9% to 2.25% and implemented liquidity provision. International reserves remained about 15 months of prospective import in 2020. Non-food inflation is expected to remain stable. The basket peg regime has been working well, and the REER has remained roughly stable.
Financial Sector Policy
Work on financial inclusion should help further development of the financial sector.	In 2020, slow progress toward key financial inclusion goals due to the pandemic. In 2021, the RBV will undertake a mid-term review of the National Financial Inclusion Strategy 2018–2023.
Strengthen the financial sector’s regulatory and legal frameworks to support fintech use.	Legislation and supervisory framework to monitor the use of fintech and distributed ledger technology is being developed. The amendment to Financial Dealers Licensing Act became effective in July 2021, allowing the trade of digital assets and requiring physical presence of all license holders in Vanuatu.
Given elevated NPLs and low profitability, the RBV needs to monitor the banking sector carefully and continue strengthening its supervisory framework.	The RBV continued monitoring developments in banking system, including profitability and NPLs. The commercial banks’ loan repayment holiday and the temporary relaxation of loan classification were extended by September 2021.
Ongoing improvements to AML/CFT regime are needed to strengthen financial sector stability and ease potential pressures on correspondent banking relationships.	AML/CFT related bills were passed in Parliament in 2020. Review of current AML/CFT framework by APG/FATF is expected in 2023.
Structural Policy
Structural policy should focus on diversification to foster stable growth and resilience. Diversification strategy should be complemented by further improvements in the business environment.	Economic Development Zone (EDZ) legislation is in progress. The Vanuatu Electronic Single Window (VESW) project, aiming to reduce the cost and time of trading, was completed.
Natural Disasters and Climate Change
Enhance preparedness to natural disaster risk by strengthening risk assessment and planning, building buffers, and promoting resilient infrastructure and adequate maintenance. Set up a carefully designed national emergency fund with stable and substantial funding.	Disaster Risk Management Act 2019 was passed by parliament in November 2019, and gazetted in February 2020. The government is setting up a trust account in 2021. The government allocated VUV 300 million to its emergency fund. The PFEM Act also provides avenues for additional funding of 1.5% of the budget appropriation in emergency.

Fund Recommendation	Policy Actions
Fiscal Policy
Continue with revenue mobilization and expenditure prioritization to maintain debt sustainability. Proposed measures include i. Complete the proposed 2017 tax reforms to increase revenues. ii. Stabilize expenditure as a share of GDP. iii. Focus on grants and loans with higher concessionality. iv. Limit and prioritize loans, especially less concessional lending.	The authorities did not introduce income tax and pass the Tax administration Act. Established a national revenue governance committee to oversee the government’s efforts in expanding its revenue base. ECP revenue windfall used for debt repayments and signed new concessional loan and grant agreement for Climate Change Resilient Transport Project with World Bank IDA.
Strengthen the debt management framework.	The new national debt management strategy was passed through parliament in 2019 and are in place till 2022.
The authorities should aim for a 50 percent PPG debt-to-GDP target. The lower target would provide an additional buffer, of up to 10 percent of GDP, against fiscal risks from natural disasters as recommended by 2018 Article IV consultation.	The authorities adopted a public-and-publicly-guaranteed debt ceiling as 60 percent of GDP. This includes an implicit understanding that there should be a buffer left for responding to natural disasters.
Monetary Policy/Exchange Rate Policy
RBV should maintain an accommodative monetary policy stance but be ready to ease if necessary. Monetary policy should hold the course to maintain stable exchange rate and low inflation. Maintain the exchange rate basket peg at the current level for now but be ready to review and adjust the level and composition if external position worsens significantly.	In March 2020, the RBV reduced the policy rate from 2.9% to 2.25% and implemented liquidity provision. International reserves remained about 15 months of prospective import in 2020. Non-food inflation is expected to remain stable. The basket peg regime has been working well, and the REER has remained roughly stable.
Financial Sector Policy
Work on financial inclusion should help further development of the financial sector.	In 2020, slow progress toward key financial inclusion goals due to the pandemic. In 2021, the RBV will undertake a mid-term review of the National Financial Inclusion Strategy 2018–2023.
Strengthen the financial sector’s regulatory and legal frameworks to support fintech use.	Legislation and supervisory framework to monitor the use of fintech and distributed ledger technology is being developed. The amendment to Financial Dealers Licensing Act became effective in July 2021, allowing the trade of digital assets and requiring physical presence of all license holders in Vanuatu.
Given elevated NPLs and low profitability, the RBV needs to monitor the banking sector carefully and continue strengthening its supervisory framework.	The RBV continued monitoring developments in banking system, including profitability and NPLs. The commercial banks’ loan repayment holiday and the temporary relaxation of loan classification were extended by September 2021.
Ongoing improvements to AML/CFT regime are needed to strengthen financial sector stability and ease potential pressures on correspondent banking relationships.	AML/CFT related bills were passed in Parliament in 2020. Review of current AML/CFT framework by APG/FATF is expected in 2023.
Structural Policy
Structural policy should focus on diversification to foster stable growth and resilience. Diversification strategy should be complemented by further improvements in the business environment.	Economic Development Zone (EDZ) legislation is in progress. The Vanuatu Electronic Single Window (VESW) project, aiming to reduce the cost and time of trading, was completed.
Natural Disasters and Climate Change
Enhance preparedness to natural disaster risk by strengthening risk assessment and planning, building buffers, and promoting resilient infrastructure and adequate maintenance. Set up a carefully designed national emergency fund with stable and substantial funding.	Disaster Risk Management Act 2019 was passed by parliament in November 2019, and gazetted in February 2020. The government is setting up a trust account in 2021. The government allocated VUV 300 million to its emergency fund. The PFEM Act also provides avenues for additional funding of 1.5% of the budget appropriation in emergency.

Annex II. Economic Citizenship Program: An Update^¹

1. Vanuatu is the only country in the Asia and Pacific region to have an Economic Citizenship Program (ECP) – whereby one can pay a set amount of dollars and acquire citizenship quickly. ECPs have become increasingly popular in small state developing economies over the last decade. Such a commodified citizenship invariably entails limited or no residency requirements, restricts the scope for income taxation and increases mobility of recipients through visa free access to over a hundred countries. ECPs are generally the primary source of quick liquid revenue for small states like Vanuatu, but it is highly volatile and requires prudent management.

2. After failed attempts to establish schemes that offer passports in return for investment in the 1990s, the Vanuatu government revived the new ECP in 2016.^² This was primarily to boost revenues and support the recovery activities post the devasting Tropical Cyclone Pam in March 2015. After experimenting with a real estate option (REO) program (that is used in some countries), the government settled on Vanuatu Development Support Program (VDSP) and Vanuatu Contribution Program (VCP) from 2017 onwards for interested candidates to obtain Vanuatu citizenship.^³ These schemes offer “honorary citizenship” that includes most ni-Vanuatu rights except voting and political involvement, in exchange for a one-time contribution. The application process requires a background check, including of financial resources and criminal record, and takes between 1 to 2 months, making it one of the most fast-track citizenship programs in the world.^⁴

3. The required investment amount through their schemes have declined over time. Initially, both schemes offered citizenship to foreign investors for USD 220,000 for a single person application to USD 280,000 for a family with elderly parents. Application amount has since been lowered twice. There were reduced USD 150,000 for a single applicant in May 2018, then to USD 130,000 for a single applicant and USD 180,000 for a family of four in November 2019. Of this amount, the government fee is USD 80,000 (USD 130,000 for a family of four). The rest is retained by agents, who must be a born or naturalized Vanuatu citizen, and who pays a 15 percent tax on their revenues. The number of agents licensed for the ECP transaction have more than doubled in 2020, to over 100.

4. Revenues from the ECP have accelerated over the past five years. The ECP funds collected in 2020 increased by 16.7 percent compared to 2019, which itself was 23.6 percent higher than revenues in 2018. ECP revenue accounted for a third of government revenue in 2020 and have been higher than foreign aid since 2018. They are now the largest source of revenue, higher than VAT, the primary tool for domestic revenue collections. As a result of the buoyant ECP revenues, Vanuatu has run a large fiscal surplus in 2018 and 2019 and only a small deficit in 2020, despite the severe economic impact from the COVID-19 pandemic and natural disasters in 2020.

5. The government has so far used the ECP revenues prudently. The government has used the surplus ECP revenues for early repayments of debt, fund one-off expenditures like the COVID-19 stimulus package, natural disaster relief and the mandated restoration of wage levels of public officials. It has also built and maintained large cash reserves. Any additional surplus should be carefully managed given the threat of sudden stop. Recent evidence suggests that spending on public consumption would be the riskiest while spending toward public investment and debt consolidation would be a safer use of these revenues (Dominica IMF Selected Issues Paper, 2017). The government should not increase its recurrent spending further, particularly on wage bill and use of goods and services. Vanuatu could potentially pool surplus revenues in a trust fund to cope with the high vulnerability to natural disasters and focus on building climate resilience.^⁵

6. Citizenship-by-investment schemes are generally recognized as being associated with financial integrity and corruption risks. They have been linked to money laundering, tax evasion, and other crimes. If these risks are not properly managed, they can result in reputational damage to offering countries that could be detrimental to their financial sector and broader economy. Risks arising from Vanuatu’s ECP have been flagged. In 2019, questions on the effectiveness of its AML/CFT regime were raised after international criminals were found holding Vanuatu passports through its ECP.

7. There is an urgent need to mitigate the financial integrity risks and reduce the growing reliance on ECP revenues. Financial integrity risks associated with the ECP may be one cause of difficulty in attempts to establish new CBRs. There is insufficient transparency and concerns about the stringency of the application review process.^⁶ The government should strengthen its AML/CFT regime and its implementation. Given the unpredictability of ECP revenues, the government should actively consider revenue mobilization and further expenditure rationalization. As it now stands, the revenue base is limited – VAT, tariffs on imported goods and a variety of minor business taxes and fees. Vanuatu has no income or corporate taxes.

Annex III. External Sector Assessment^¹

The external position for 2020 is stronger than the level implied by fundamentals and desirable policy setting. The current account balance is estimated to remain in surplus in 2020 mainly due to the windfall revenues from the Economic Citizenship Program (ECP) despite a sharp drop in tourism receipts. The real effective exchange rate has appreciated slightly in 2020 while international reserves have increased largely reflecting the windfall ECP receipts.

1. Current account balance. Vanuatu’s current account (CA) surplus is estimated to decline to 3.3 percent of GDP in 2020 from a record surplus of 16 percent of GDP in 2019, largely due to a sharp drop in travel receipts. These receipts (about 30 percent of GDP on average over 2015–19) are estimated to drop by about 75 percent in 2020 due to the border closure measures preemptively imposed by the authorities to prevent a local transmission of COVID-19. The larger-than-expected windfall revenues from the ECP, increased donor support as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic and 2020 Tropical Cyclone (TC) Harold, and resilience of remittances from seasonal workers had prevented CA from turning into deficit in 2020. The CA balance is expected to deteriorate in 2021, mainly due to lower ECP and travel receipts.

2. The EBA-lite CA model results indicate a positive gap of 3.5 percent of GDP in 2020, consistent with an estimated cyclically adjusted CA surplus of 1.5 percent and a model-based CA norm of -2 percent of GDP. Thus, the CA in 2020 is assessed to be stronger than the level implied by fundamentals and desirable policy setting. The cyclical adjustments incorporate the temporary impact of the pandemic on the tourism and the excess revenue windfall from the ECP (measured against the forecast ECP revenues over 2021–2026) and increased donor support. The main contributors of the positive policy gap are the stronger than desirable fiscal balance largely due to the ECP revenues, lower than desirable public health spending, and reserve accumulation.

Vanuatu: Model Estimates for 2020 (in percent of GDP)

Source: IMF staff estimates.

^{^1/}Additional cyclical adjustment to account for the temporary impact of the pandemic on tourism (8.5 percent of GDP).

^{^2/}Adjustment to the extraordinary revenue windfall from the ECP (7.8 percent of GDP), and the higher current transfers received by the government (1.9 percent of GDP).

^{^3/}Cyclically adjusted, including multilateral consistency adjustments.

Vanuatu: Model Estimates for 2020 (in percent of GDP)

		CA model
CA-Actual		3.3
	Cyclical contributions (from model) (-)	0.6
	COVID-19 adjustor (+) ^1/	8.5
	Additional temporary/statistical factors (+) ^2/	-9.7
Adjusted CA		1.5
CA Norm (from model) ^3/		-2.0
	Adjustments to the norm (+)	0.0
Adjusted CA Norm		-2.0
CA Gap		3.5
	o/w Relative policy gap	8.1
Elasticity		-0.32
REER Gap (in percent)		-11.1

Source: IMF staff estimates.

^{^1/}Additional cyclical adjustment to account for the temporary impact of the pandemic on tourism (8.5 percent of GDP).

^{^2/}Adjustment to the extraordinary revenue windfall from the ECP (7.8 percent of GDP), and the higher current transfers received by the government (1.9 percent of GDP).

^{^3/}Cyclically adjusted, including multilateral consistency adjustments.

Vanuatu: Model Estimates for 2020 (in percent of GDP)

		CA model
CA-Actual		3.3
	Cyclical contributions (from model) (-)	0.6
	COVID-19 adjustor (+) ^1/	8.5
	Additional temporary/statistical factors (+) ^2/	-9.7
Adjusted CA		1.5
CA Norm (from model) ^3/		-2.0
	Adjustments to the norm (+)	0.0
Adjusted CA Norm		-2.0
CA Gap		3.5
	o/w Relative policy gap	8.1
Elasticity		-0.32
REER Gap (in percent)		-11.1

Source: IMF staff estimates.

^{^1/}Additional cyclical adjustment to account for the temporary impact of the pandemic on tourism (8.5 percent of GDP).

^{^2/}Adjustment to the extraordinary revenue windfall from the ECP (7.8 percent of GDP), and the higher current transfers received by the government (1.9 percent of GDP).

^{^3/}Cyclically adjusted, including multilateral consistency adjustments.

3. Exchange rate and competitiveness. The exchange rate of the vatu is linked to a transaction-weighted (trade and tourism receipts) basket of currencies with weights adjusted periodically. The real effective exchange rate (REER) appreciated by 1.7 percent on average in 2020, mainly due to its higher headline inflation relative to its trading partners.

4. Capital and financial accounts. Vanuatu’s capital and financial accounts inflows recorded a surplus in 2020, mainly driven by donor project-related capital grants and net FDI inflows. Net FDI inflows (about 4.2 percent of GDP on average over 2015–19) remained weak at 2.6 percent of GDP in 2020 due to the pandemic. Net errors and omissions were about 4.2 percent of GDP in 2020.

5. International reserves and adequacy. Vanuatu’s gross official reserves increased to US$613.6 million (about 15 months of imports) in 2020 from US$511.6 million in 2019, largely reflecting the windfall ECP receipts and increased donor support. A reserve adequacy methodology for credit-constrained economies is used to estimate an optimal level of reserves by comparing the costs and benefits of holding reserves. When measured against Vanuatu’s vulnerability to external shocks, the adequate level of reserves is estimated to lie in the range of 4.2 to 5.6 months of imports, depending on the probability of a large shock, based on the sample average of countries (50 percent) and Vanuatu’s high vulnerability to natural disasters (75 percent). The staff’s estimate for reserve adequacy is somewhat higher than the RBV’s objective to maintain enough official reserves to cover at least 4 months of imports. Overtime, reserve coverage is expected to remain adequate to finance imports and loan repayments, despite the slow recovery of tourism and moderating ECP revenues. Vanuatu needs buffers to cover its imports needs for reconstruction and losses in domestic production in the event of natural disasters. For example, the Cyclone Pam in 2015 destroyed between 70 and 80 percent of GDP and led to large reconstruction and imports needs.

Annex IV. Risk Assessment Matrix^¹

Likelihood	Risks	Expected Impact	Main Policy Recommendation
	Unexpected shifts in the Covid-19 pandemic.
Medium	Asynchronous progress. Limited access to, and longer-than-expected deployment of, vaccines in some countries—combined with dwindling policy space—prompt a reassessment of their growth prospects (for some Emerging and Frontier Markets triggering capital outflows, depreciation and inflation pressures, and debt defaults).	*High* Prolonged border closure to contain COV ID-19 could invite associated disruptions to tourism and delays of infrastructure projects. A slower recovery or a renewed downturn would increase risks of economic scarring: productivity of tourism related sector would decrease by loss of skilled labor and closure of prospective firms.	Continue targeted fiscal measures to affected households and businesses. Maintain current accommodative monetary policy stance.
Medium	Prolonged pandemic. The disease proves harder to eradicate (e.g., due to new virus strains, short effectiveness of vaccines, or widespread unwillingness to take them), requiring costly containment efforts and prompting persistent behavioral changes rendering many activities unviable. For countries with policy space, prolonged support—while needed to cushion the economy—exacerbates stretched asset valuations, fueling financial vulnerabilities. For those with limited space, especially EMs, policy support is insufficient.
Medium	Faster containment. Pandemic is contained faster than expected due to the rapid production and distribution of vaccines, boosting confidence and economic activity.	*High* Resumption of economic activity could normalize quicker if the pandemic is contained faster.
High	Potential drop of ECP revenues. ECP revenues could fall sharply amid growing concerns regarding AML/CFT risks, amplified by the recent loss of a key correspondent banking relationship (CBR). AML/CFT capacity constraint could lead to lessening Vanuatu’s passport attractiveness (e.g. by EU’s delisting from the visa-free country list), leading to revenue drop.	*High* ECP revenue drop might jeopardize medium-term fiscal sustainability. The cash reserve buffer can mitigate the shock, if the decline is temporary.	Formulate a medium-term fiscal strategy. Continue to commit to the current fiscal rules such as positive recurrent balance and concessional borrowing.
High	Growing NPLs. Financial institutions’ asset quality could deteriorate with a spike in NPL ratios once the policy support measures expire.	*Medium* Banks could deleverage to rebuild capital buffers and subsequently credit conditions could tighten. Structurally high NPL ratio in the personal sector could hinder promoting financial inclusion.	Guide banks to accumulate further general provisioning early. Establish crisis management and resolution frameworks.
High	Weak Governance. Lack of transparency and supervising framework for state-owned enterprises (SOE) could deteriorate their business soundness and negatively affect business environment and fiscal management. Issues on AML/CFT and EU blacklisting related to tax transparency could undermine business appetite of foreign companies in a de-risking context, leading to further loss of CBRs and hindering promotion of foreign direct investment (FDI). Insufficient autonomy of the central bank could also affect their business appetite.	*High* Promoting FDI is a key for Vanuatu’s economic growth. Weak FDI could lead to slow economic growth and deterioration of external fiscal sustainability.	Establish the governance structure of the SOEs. Strengthen AML/CFT institutional capacity. Amend the tax bill consistent with the international standard of tax transparency. Complete the 2016 safeguard assessment.
Medium/Low	Higher frequency and severity of natural disasters related to climate change cause severe economic damage to smaller economies susceptible to disruptions and accelerate emigration from these economies (medium probability). A sequence of severe events in large economies reduces global GDP and prompts a recalculation of risk and growth prospects. Disasters hitting key infrastructure or disrupting trade raise commodity price levels and volatility (low probability).	*High* Vanuatu faces high natural disaster risk, including tropical cyclone, earthquakes, floods, and volcanic activity. Climate change is likely to alter weather and precipitation patterns, raise sea levels and increase the intensity and frequency of some types of natural disasters.	Integrate financing plans, consistent with the medium-term fiscal strategy, for the adaptation plan and disaster response to support resilience-building.

Likelihood	Risks	Expected Impact	Main Policy Recommendation
	Unexpected shifts in the Covid-19 pandemic.
Medium	Asynchronous progress. Limited access to, and longer-than-expected deployment of, vaccines in some countries—combined with dwindling policy space—prompt a reassessment of their growth prospects (for some Emerging and Frontier Markets triggering capital outflows, depreciation and inflation pressures, and debt defaults).	*High* Prolonged border closure to contain COV ID-19 could invite associated disruptions to tourism and delays of infrastructure projects. A slower recovery or a renewed downturn would increase risks of economic scarring: productivity of tourism related sector would decrease by loss of skilled labor and closure of prospective firms.	Continue targeted fiscal measures to affected households and businesses. Maintain current accommodative monetary policy stance.
Medium	Prolonged pandemic. The disease proves harder to eradicate (e.g., due to new virus strains, short effectiveness of vaccines, or widespread unwillingness to take them), requiring costly containment efforts and prompting persistent behavioral changes rendering many activities unviable. For countries with policy space, prolonged support—while needed to cushion the economy—exacerbates stretched asset valuations, fueling financial vulnerabilities. For those with limited space, especially EMs, policy support is insufficient.
Medium	Faster containment. Pandemic is contained faster than expected due to the rapid production and distribution of vaccines, boosting confidence and economic activity.	*High* Resumption of economic activity could normalize quicker if the pandemic is contained faster.
High	Potential drop of ECP revenues. ECP revenues could fall sharply amid growing concerns regarding AML/CFT risks, amplified by the recent loss of a key correspondent banking relationship (CBR). AML/CFT capacity constraint could lead to lessening Vanuatu’s passport attractiveness (e.g. by EU’s delisting from the visa-free country list), leading to revenue drop.	*High* ECP revenue drop might jeopardize medium-term fiscal sustainability. The cash reserve buffer can mitigate the shock, if the decline is temporary.	Formulate a medium-term fiscal strategy. Continue to commit to the current fiscal rules such as positive recurrent balance and concessional borrowing.
High	Growing NPLs. Financial institutions’ asset quality could deteriorate with a spike in NPL ratios once the policy support measures expire.	*Medium* Banks could deleverage to rebuild capital buffers and subsequently credit conditions could tighten. Structurally high NPL ratio in the personal sector could hinder promoting financial inclusion.	Guide banks to accumulate further general provisioning early. Establish crisis management and resolution frameworks.
High	Weak Governance. Lack of transparency and supervising framework for state-owned enterprises (SOE) could deteriorate their business soundness and negatively affect business environment and fiscal management. Issues on AML/CFT and EU blacklisting related to tax transparency could undermine business appetite of foreign companies in a de-risking context, leading to further loss of CBRs and hindering promotion of foreign direct investment (FDI). Insufficient autonomy of the central bank could also affect their business appetite.	*High* Promoting FDI is a key for Vanuatu’s economic growth. Weak FDI could lead to slow economic growth and deterioration of external fiscal sustainability.	Establish the governance structure of the SOEs. Strengthen AML/CFT institutional capacity. Amend the tax bill consistent with the international standard of tax transparency. Complete the 2016 safeguard assessment.
Medium/Low	Higher frequency and severity of natural disasters related to climate change cause severe economic damage to smaller economies susceptible to disruptions and accelerate emigration from these economies (medium probability). A sequence of severe events in large economies reduces global GDP and prompts a recalculation of risk and growth prospects. Disasters hitting key infrastructure or disrupting trade raise commodity price levels and volatility (low probability).	*High* Vanuatu faces high natural disaster risk, including tropical cyclone, earthquakes, floods, and volcanic activity. Climate change is likely to alter weather and precipitation patterns, raise sea levels and increase the intensity and frequency of some types of natural disasters.	Integrate financing plans, consistent with the medium-term fiscal strategy, for the adaptation plan and disaster response to support resilience-building.

Annex V. Recent Developments in Correspondent Banking Relationships in the Pacific Island Countries^¹

1. The number of active correspondents has continued to decline globally over a decade, but at a much slower pace and some regions are more affected than others.^² Such decline is generally attributed to correspondent banks’ concerns about risks and weak profitability. International rules on tax transparency and anti-money laundering and combating of financing of terrorism (AML/CFT) have become more stringent following the Global Financial Crisis of 2008. Consequently, international correspondent banks were finding it less attractive to hold correspondent banking relationships (CBRs) with banks in Pacific island countries (PICs) due to the high costs of AML/CFT compliance and low profitability of transactions. In 2019, the Pacific region saw the largest yearly decline (about 6 percent) in CBRs compared to other regions, including the Caribbean. The number of active correspondents of USD account has more severely fallen in PICs. In 2021, the recent termination of CBRs by an Australian bank with several domestic banks in PICs including Samoa and Vanuatu revealed that loss of CBR could invite more serious economic consequences than ever, given that the economies have relied on fewer and fewer CBRs.

2. CBR is essential financial infrastructure for PICs. Traditionally, CBR involves a financial institution (correspondent bank) in a foreign country facilitating cross border payment services on behalf of a financial institution (respondent bank) in another country. Financial institutions in PICs are typically too small to have operations in other countries and therefore rely on CBR to conduct cross border payments. Maintaining CBRs with international banks allows PICs to engage in international trade and develop their exporting industries such as agriculture which is vital for their development. Furthermore, CBR allows for the transmission of remittances which are important income sources for PICs.

3. The escalation of CBR issues in PICs could have severe macroeconomic consequences. Losing CBR could hinder export activities, especially in case of USD account, which is one of major trade clearing currencies. This could lead to inadequate level of foreign reserves to pay for future imports. Fiscal sustainability issues could also occur when the loss of CBR leads to a material reduction in government revenues. In Solomon Islands, CBR issues threatened to disrupt the exports of logs, the main source of foreign reserves and government revenues. The loss of CBR could harm remittances, which is another source of foreign reserves and a key driver of household consumption in PICs. Samoa’s recent loss of USD CBR with an Australian Bank could potentially harm future personal remittance inflows.^³ Given that currency trading is a source of banks’ income, the withdrawal of CBR could deteriorate banks’ profitability. In Vanuatu, the recent loss of USD CBR in one of the major domestic banks could have material implications on its profitability given that its export clearing service of USD, a major trading currency, is no longer available. Moreover, reduction in CBR leads to concentration of CBR in fewer banks, increasing systemic instability risk.

4. CBR issues in PICs are commonly associated with AML/CFT related concerns. Financial integrity risks have been cited by banks as one reason for the termination of CBRs. All of the PICs facing CBR issues previously have been found by the Asia Pacific Group on Money Laundering (APG) to have important deficiencies in their AML/CFT regimes. International financial centers often have to contend with heightened ML/TF risks (including inadequate entity transparency and inaccurate beneficial ownership information), which make them vulnerable to illicit financial flows (due to their frequent exploitation by criminal elements). These concerns, along with other factors, such as negative reputational implications of high-risk activities (e.g., economic citizenship programs) and low profitability, often lead to CBR pressures. Recently there have been elevated reports raising concerns on the strength of due diligence checks being linked with criminal activities for Vanuatu’s economic citizenship program, that likely contributed to its major domestic bank losing its only USD CBR. In addition, non-compliance with international standard of tax transparency (e.g., as reflected in the EU list of non-cooperative tax jurisdictions) also can contribute to CBR pressures in the context of de-risking.

5. It is therefore imperative that PICs actively pursue reforms to strengthen their AML/CFT regimes and mitigate the financial integrity risks as well as the risk of losing CBR. PICs should ensure that their AML/CFT regimes remain resilient to any perceived or actual risks to financial integrity and good governance. To this end, the Fund has assisted PICs to deal with CBR issues through the provision of technical assistance and by facilitating regional dialogue among key stakeholders. Regional dialogue on CBR issues can help to identify the main drivers behind CBR pressures as well as solutions. The Fund has dedicated externally financed thematic fund that supports Fund-delivered technical assistance to targeted PICs to strengthen AML/CFT supervision. PFTAC is also providing secretarial support for a regional KYC facility, contributing to addressing CBR issues in PICs.

References

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Annex VI. Promoting Economic Diversification in the Post-COVID Era^¹

1. The Vanuatu economy is heavily reliant on tourism and exports have remain limited. Vanuatu has a narrow export base with economic activity largely concentrating on tourism and agriculture. ^² Historically the tourism industry has been the main driver of economic growth accounting for almost a third of GDP before the COVID crisis. Economic growth has also been influenced by industrial construction activity (which averaged a 10-year growth of 12.8 percent in the pre-COVID period) reflecting infrastructure projects. In contrast, the agriculture, fisheries, and forestry sector has faced weak and volatile growth, as production continued to be hampered by natural disasters including two major cyclones^³ in the last 5 years. An eighty percent share of agriculture production is for crops including export commodities kava, copra, and cocoa. Fish production has been negligible until recently when commercial fishing growth improved exponentially following the opening of Vanuatu’s first Tuna canning company.^⁴ Forestry and livestock production are mainly for the domestic market and export (sawn timber and beef) only on a small scale.

2. There is potential to strengthen future long-term growth through economic diversification. The pandemic emphasized the need to diversify growth, after the country suffered its worst economic recession in history following the collapse of tourism. The authorities’ post-COVID growth strategy^⁵ is focused on developing the productive and social sectors to achieve stable and inclusive economic growth. Moreover, the authorities’ long-term economic development goals as per the Vanuatu 2030: The People’s Plan, include economic diversification and production of more niche value added processed commodities. There are three potential industries that can be considered to diversify growth in Vanuatu, which include:

Fisheries. The authorities aim to establish fisheries as one of the top 10 GDP sectors by 2030. Given its large Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), the government could earn revenues from fishing licenses given to purse seiners and longline fishing vessels that fish in Vanuatu waters. Commercial fishing in Vanuatu is mainly for Tuna which has steadily increased since 2017. According to the authorities, Vanuatu receives about $3 million Vatu per year in revenues from fishing licenses given to foreign Tuna fishing vessels. There is huge potential to raise domestic fish production and exports through investment in better offloading, storage, and processing facilities in Vanuatu. This was clearly illustrated in 2020, when there was exponential increase in domestic fish production and fish exports a year after Sino Van fish processing plant began operations. Authorities have plans to develop better infrastructure to allow more tuna and fish species to be processed domestically. However, authorities need to exercise caution to ensure that policies that develop the fisheries sector are environmentally sustainable.
Manufacturing for agribusiness. Commercial agriculture in Vanuatu is relatively underdeveloped, with exports largely concentrated in unprocessed crops. Agribusiness is mostly related to the processing of kava, coconut oil, beef, and sawn timber. The manufacturing sector is still small and can be better linked to agriculture production to create more value-added agriculture exports that are niche to Vanuatu. European Development Fund 11’s (EDF-11) Value Chain program is already providing support for agriculture value chains in Vanuatu, to help mechanize as well as improve quality of production and storage facilities for agriculture produce. However, business environment constraints related to the high cost of doing business in Vanuatu is a key barrier that will need to be addressed to encourage private sector investment in the manufacturing industry. This can be enhanced with investment in better quality transport networks such as roads and wharves to facilitate greater market access for farmers.
ICT enabled outsourcing services. Given its high literacy rate^⁶, fluency in English and French, and cheap labour costs compared to advanced economies, Vanuatu has the potential to provide outsourcing services such as call centers to its neighbors Australia and New Zealand and French speaking countries in Europe. The authorities are currently developing an Economic Development Zone (EDZ) legislation which can help attract foreign direct investment (FDI) into both manufacturing and ICT enabled outsourcing services sectors. Infrastructure developments that improve access to ICT and energy can also support the development of an outsourcing services industry in Vanuatu, by reducing the cost of doing business.

3. Several barriers limit the country’s ability to diversify growth. In order to fully harness its growth potential and diversify its economic sectors, Vanuatu must address existing macro critical issues that are hindering private sector investment and development.

High cost of doing business due to gaps in key infrastructure. Authorities mentioned that the key barrier to diversifying the agriculture sector was the high cost of doing business, largely due to utility costs that were higher than most Pacific Island Countries (PICs). Vanuatu will need to address key infrastructure gaps constraining access to electricity, transport services, and internet. In Vanuatu, only 61.9 percent of the population had access to electricity in 2018, with urban areas having higher access (93.7 percent) compared to rural areas (51.1 percent). Energy access in Vanuatu is also well below most other PICs. Electricity in Vanuatu is largely solar driven, as grid electricity is only accessible in the main urban centers Port Villa and Luganville. The rural areas in Vanuatu particularly the outer islands are isolated from main urban centers with limited access to markets and essential services, which requires good transport infrastructure. Internet is only accessible by a quarter of the population (26 percent), comparably lower than other PICs like New Caledonia (82 percent), French Polynesia (73 percent), Nauru (62 percent) and Fiji (50 percent).
Weak business environment. Structural gaps in the business environment will also need to be addressed. The Index of Economic Freedom, ^⁷ showed that relative to previous assessment in 2020, Vanuatu’s business climate had worsened in terms of property rights, judicial effectiveness, business freedom, and trade freedom. The country was found to be economically repressed in the area of judicial effectiveness, government integrity, business freedom^⁸, and financial freedom ^⁹.
Governance issues dampen investor confidence and deter quality private sector investment including FDI. In 2019, the Worldwide governance indicators rated Vanuatu poorly in terms of government effectiveness, regulatory quality, and control of corruption. Additionally, the country ranked below most other countries in the world in these same areas of governance. The 2016 Safeguards Assessment^¹⁰ highlighted the need to strengthen the autonomy and governance of RBV. There is also lack of transparent information on Government Business Enterprises. In addition, Vanuatu has been blacklisted by the European Union because it was not compliant with the international standard of tax transparency. AML/CFT gaps related to Know Your Customer requirements also restrict quality FDI.

4. Continuing structural reforms and infrastructure development are crucial for diversifying growth in Vanuatu. The authorities need to fast track reforms that pre-dated the pandemic and align structural reforms to ensure it achieves the Sustainable Development Goals (see Vanuatu SDG table). In particular, authorities are encouraged to avoid widespread tax exemptions when implementing the EDZ and to focus on reforms that:

Promote better connectivity through investment in quality climate resilient infrastructure. Access to key transport infrastructure like roads, wharves, and ports are essential for development and growth, because it facilitates trade through connecting buyers to sellers. The authorities are encouraged to continue investment in quality transport infrastructure that enables better interisland connectivity and access to markets. It is also vital that transport infrastructure is climate change resilient given Vanuatu’s high vulnerability to natural disasters.
Encourage digitization of payments and services. Digitization requires improvement in energy access. Since 2015, there has been progress on improving access to energy in rural areas through donor support from the World Bank’s Vanuatu Rural Electrification Project. Access to energy is expected to further improve through additional donor support from the World Bank ^¹¹ and the Asian Development Bank .^¹² With better energy access, more households and businesses will be able to access the internet. Government is committed to improve internet coverage to 98 percent by 2022 under its Universal Access Policy and is actively demonopolizing the ICT sector in Vanuatu to encourage competition and more private sector investment. The authorities also plan to undertake a Submarine Cable project that will allow for better internet connection and coverage across Vanuatu. The Interchange Cable Network 2 (ICN2) project^¹³ is also expected to enhance internet coverage and connectivity. Improvements in ICT infrastructure and de-monopolization will facilitate access to cheaper internet services. Recently, the authorities launched the Vanuatu Electronic Single Window (VESW) a donor funded project^¹⁴ that aims to reduce the cost and time of trading across borders through digitization.
Strengthen governance and transparency. Improving the business environment through better institutions that support governance and transparency will encourage private sector investment and growth. The authorities will need to fast track the implementation of key recommendations from the 2016 Safeguards Assessment on improving RBV governance. Structural reforms to improve reporting on GBEs, enhance KYC and strengthen AML/CFT will also need to be implemented quickly to encourage more better quality FDI.

^{Table 1.}

Vanuatu: SDGs Identified in the National Sustainable Development Plan 2016 to 2030 (Vanuatu 2030)^{^1/}

^{^1/}Cited from p.32 of IMF, 2019, Vanuatu: 2019 Article IV Consultation, IMF Country Report No. 19/162.

^{^2/}Staff compilation.

^{Table 1.}

Vanuatu: SDGs Identified in the National Sustainable Development Plan 2016 to 2030 (Vanuatu 2030)^{^1/}

		Key elements identified by the Vanuatu 2030	Corresponding SDGs ^{^2/}	Role of the IMF
I. Society Pillar				>TA on PFM with a particular focus on increased fiscal resilience, transparency and accountability > TA on financial supervision to support financial deepening and inclusion
	1. Vibrant cultural identity
	2. Quality Education	4 Quality Education
	3. Quality Health Care	3 Good Health and Well Being
	4. Social Inclusion	5 Gender Equality	10 Reduced Inequality
	5. Security, Peace and Justice	16 Peace, Justice, and Strong Institution
	6. Strong and Effective Institutions	16 Peace, Justice, and Strong Institution
II. Environmental Pillar				> Provide analytical and policy framework on how to incorporate the cost of natural disasters and climate change > Coordination with the World Bank Group and development partners
	1. Food and Nutrition Security	2 Zero Hunger
	2. Blue-Green Economic Growth	7 Affordable and Clean Energy
	3. Climate and Disaster Resilience	13 Climate Action
	4. Natural Resource Management	6 Clean Water & Sanitation	14 Sustainable Use of Oceans
	5. Ecosystems and Biodiversity	12 Responsible Consumption	15 Protect Forests & Ecosystem
III. Economy Pillar				> Surveillance and policy advice on macro-economic policiesŸ > TA on tax administration reform and domestic revenue mobilization > Coordination with the World Bank Group and development partners > Capacity development
	1. Stable and Equitable Growth	8 Inclusive Economic Growth & Decent Work
	2. Improve Infrastructure	9 Resilient Infrastructure & Innovation
	3. Strengthen Rural Communities	11 Sustainable Cities & Communities
	4. Create jobs and business opportunities	1 No Poverty	17 Partnerships for the Goals

^{^1/}Cited from p.32 of IMF, 2019, Vanuatu: 2019 Article IV Consultation, IMF Country Report No. 19/162.

^{^2/}Staff compilation.

^{Table 1.}

Vanuatu: SDGs Identified in the National Sustainable Development Plan 2016 to 2030 (Vanuatu 2030)^{^1/}

		Key elements identified by the Vanuatu 2030	Corresponding SDGs ^{^2/}	Role of the IMF
I. Society Pillar				>TA on PFM with a particular focus on increased fiscal resilience, transparency and accountability > TA on financial supervision to support financial deepening and inclusion
	1. Vibrant cultural identity
	2. Quality Education	4 Quality Education
	3. Quality Health Care	3 Good Health and Well Being
	4. Social Inclusion	5 Gender Equality	10 Reduced Inequality
	5. Security, Peace and Justice	16 Peace, Justice, and Strong Institution
	6. Strong and Effective Institutions	16 Peace, Justice, and Strong Institution
II. Environmental Pillar				> Provide analytical and policy framework on how to incorporate the cost of natural disasters and climate change > Coordination with the World Bank Group and development partners
	1. Food and Nutrition Security	2 Zero Hunger
	2. Blue-Green Economic Growth	7 Affordable and Clean Energy
	3. Climate and Disaster Resilience	13 Climate Action
	4. Natural Resource Management	6 Clean Water & Sanitation	14 Sustainable Use of Oceans
	5. Ecosystems and Biodiversity	12 Responsible Consumption	15 Protect Forests & Ecosystem
III. Economy Pillar				> Surveillance and policy advice on macro-economic policiesŸ > TA on tax administration reform and domestic revenue mobilization > Coordination with the World Bank Group and development partners > Capacity development
	1. Stable and Equitable Growth	8 Inclusive Economic Growth & Decent Work
	2. Improve Infrastructure	9 Resilient Infrastructure & Innovation
	3. Strengthen Rural Communities	11 Sustainable Cities & Communities
	4. Create jobs and business opportunities	1 No Poverty	17 Partnerships for the Goals

^{^1/}Cited from p.32 of IMF, 2019, Vanuatu: 2019 Article IV Consultation, IMF Country Report No. 19/162.

^{^2/}Staff compilation.

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Annex VII. Foreign Direct Investment in Vanuatu ^¹

Foreign direct investment (FDI) is an important catalyst for raising growth prospects for developing economies. FDI can increase productivity, generate employment, and increase capital stock. FDI can also help diversify domestic economy and promote regional and global integration. Nevertheless, attracting and reaping the benefits of FDI will largely depend on business operating environments, including regulations and labor skills. Improving Vanuatu’s business environment would be a key to attracting foreign investment.

1. FDI inflows to Vanuatu, relatively high among its peers, have declined recently. FDI inflows to Vanuatu averaged 4.7 percent of GDP in 2010–19, compared to 2.0 percent of GDP in lower middle-income countries and 2.3 percent in middle-income countries. However, FDI inflows dropped from the peak of 7.6 percent of GDP in 2011 to 2.9 percent of GDP in 2019, below the average of a group of Pacific island small states.^² Despite the decline, Vanuatu’s FDI inflows as a percent of GDP are still twice those of lower middle-income and middle-income countries.

2. As disaggregated FDI inflows data^³ are unavailable, data on proposed investment approved by the Vanuatu Investment Promotion Agency (VIPA) are used to analyze the allocation of foreign investment inflows. The two sets of data have similar trends though the proposed value of investment in the VIPA data is on average four times larger than the size of FDI inflows in the balance of payments data.^⁴ Although the proposed value of investment may not necessarily become realized, it could point to foreign investors’ appetite for Vanuatu. Given the similar trends of these two data sets, the VIPA data are used as a proxy for FDI inflows data for more detailed analysis.

3. Among the three main economic sectors, Vanuatu’s service sector attracted most foreign investment while the agriculture sector the least. The share of proposed investment going into the services sector was larger than the sector’s share in the economy. Among the services sector, accommodation and food services sector (proxies for the tourism sector) attracted most investment, followed by the financial sector, and wholesale and retail trade. In contrast, the agriculture sector, which accounted for about 20 percent of nominal GDP in 2019, only attracted 1.3 percent of the total proposed foreign investment in 2010–19. This low ratio is likely one of the main reasons for the low real growth rate in the agriculture sector, i.e., 1.6 percent on average in 2010–19 versus the overall real GDP growth rate of 2.7 percent over the same period.

4. Foreign investment has greatly contributed to job creation. Local employees hired by foreign-owned business accounted for one third of Vanuatu’s formal employment in 2018.^⁵ The sector that has created the most jobs is the accommodation and food service sector, followed by manufacturing, and wholesale and retail trade. The number of local employees that foreign financial companies proposed to hire is relatively small due to the sector’s low labor intensity; while that of those hired by the foreign agricultural companies is disproportionately larger than the amount of proposed investment in the sector, attesting to the crucial role of foreign investment in generating relatively well-paid formal agricultural jobs.

5. Australia remains the largest source of foreign investment to Vanuatu while the presence of China has increased. Proposed investment from Australia accounted for 20 percent of total proposed investment in 2015–19 while this ratio used to be close to half in 2010–14. The share of proposed investment from China increased from 9 percent in 2010–14 to 16 percent in 2015–19. Accordingly, China has become the second largest source country in Vanuatu in line with its increased presence in the region.

6. The authorities have tried to strike a balance between promoting FDI and supporting Vanuatu citizens. A dedicated Vanuatu Investment Promotion Authority is mandated to regulate and promote foreign investment. The National Investment Policy Statement provides updates on policies, regulations, and fees related to undertaking investments in Vanuatu. A Foreign Investment Act was adopted in 2019 to replace the Foreign Investment Promotion Act. The market access limitation to FDI is guided by the Act through a list of 15 business activities that only Vanuatu citizens can operate (e.g., exports of kava and seeds, and commercial fishing in Vanuatu’s inshore waters) and a list of activities that are open to foreign investors as long as the size of the operation is above certain thresholds (e.g., tour agent with annual sales turnover above vatu 20 million) to protect local business from foreign competition. Vanuatu also has a Reserved Occupations List under the Employment Act, which reserves 22 employment categories to Vanuatu citizens, mostly low and semi-skilled occupation. Non-citizen employees need to renew their work permits on an annual basis, up to a maximum period of four years, as a way to incentivize employers to train citizen workers to fill positions held by non-citizens within this timeframe.

7. Recent developments point to increased barriers to FDI. The Foreign Investment Act is currently under comprehensive review with one proposal specifically calling for a mandatory joint-venture between local and foreign investors after foreign investors renew the annual business licenses four times. In June 2020, 33 new employment categories were proposed to be added on top of the current 22 reserved occupations to address unemployment of Vanuatu citizens caused by the pandemic. The final number of the new categories has been reduced to ten. However, this expansion of the reserved occupations could potentially exacerbate the existing shortage of skilled workers, which business owners were most concerned according to a survey conducted in mid-2018.^⁶

8. The authorities could take the opportunity of adopting PACER Plus to take a comprehensive review of the foreign investment policy. The lists of reserved activities and reserved occupations are to be reviewed to be in line with PACER Plus. Detailed criteria to guide the decisions on the reservation list and the thresholds of the restricted activities could be clarified and made public to improve the regulatory environment. The list of the expanded reserved occupation should be revisited to avoid creating labor shortage for both domestic and foreign investment, especially as seasonal worker programs are expected to pick up after the pandemic and the ratification of Pacer Plus. Improving domestic labor skills and enhancing skill match are generally more effective in creating local jobs than restricting the entry of foreign labor in generating skilled jobs. Given the authorities’ policy in promoting the agricultural diversification and the role of FDI in generating employment in the sector, restrictions in FDI in the agricultural business should be revisited.

9. Further improving other aspects in the business operating environments is critical in attracting FDIs. Vanuatu’s track record in attracting FDIs was relatively good compared to the average lower middle-income countries, but there are areas for improvement. For example, the electricity and transportations costs are high in Vanuatu. In addition, the costs involved in starting a business are high and the bottlenecks on registering property and land titling remain. The judicial effectiveness is relatively low in Vanuatu, leading to weak enforcement of contracts. Improvement in these areas will further attract FDI inflows and gain from Pacer Plus.

Annex VIII. Adaptation to Climate Change in Vanuatu ^¹

1. Vanuatu is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change. It already faces multiple natural disaster risks, including from tropical cyclones, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and droughts. Just in 2020, the country faced twin major natural disasters, namely Tropical Cyclone (TC) Harold and Yasur volcanic ash fall that resulted in destruction of farmlands and infrastructure. The economy had been recovering and rebuilding from TC Pam in 2015, one of the worst natural disasters in Vanuatu, before the COVID-19 crisis hit and significantly impacted the economy. Recovery fr om the COVID-19 crisis presents an opportunity to strengthen resilience to natural disasters and climate change.

2. Climate change is likely to impact agriculture, water, coastal and marine resources, and infrastructure as well as tourism sectors in Vanuatu. Agricultural productivity could be impacted by the changes in rainfall distribution as agriculture in Vanuatu is entirely rain-fed. Intense and prolonged rainfall as well as drought combined with higher temperatures could reduce agriculture output and amplify food insecurity. Projected increases in sea surface temperatures combined with increased ocean acidification are likely to put pressures on the marine food chain and impact the fisheries industry. The incidence off vector-borne disease such as malaria and dengue fever, and water-borne diseases such as dysentery and diarrhea are likely to increase and shift in distribution.

3. Vanuatu has limited fiscal space to deal with climate change risks. It is under moderate risk of debt distress but has limited space to absorb shocks. In fact, Vanuatu is one of the most indebted countries amongst PICs with limited revenue mobilization. Given the high debt, the country targets grant financing and highly concessional loans for climate change adaptation. Until the start of 2016, it relied heavily on aid from development partners to cope with natural disasters. ECP revenues allowed the government to build strong cash buffers and support recovery from natural disasters. However, with uncertainty around the sustainability of ECP revenues, Vanuatu must adopt risk mitigation and risk management strategies to cope with the increasing intensity and frequency of natural disasters.

4. Given the exposure to climate change, Vanuatu is already taking steps to prepare. Vanuatu is the only Pacific Island Country to have completed both a National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) and a National Action Plan (NAP) for Disaster Risk Reduction. These non-structural interventions involve developing guidelines, operating frameworks, and action plans to help guide both ex-ante resilience building and post-disaster resilience. These plans are quite granular in nature, invariably containing sectoral action plans for each vulnerable sector. However, the NAPA was last updated in 2006 and would benefit from a revisit to press ahead with climate change adaptation measures. With regards to disaster risk management, Vanuatu only recently passed the Disaster Risk Management Act 2019 which was then gazetted in February 2020. The National Disaster Management Office (NDMO) coordinates disaster response using a cluster system. The goal is to decentralize the disaster response and strengthen local government response at the community or provincial levels given the limited capacity and localized nature of majority of the natural disasters. There has been some progress in decentralizing disaster management, but more needs to be done and technical assistance would be required for a more agile disaster risk management.

5. The government has also started to incorporate climate resilience into new infrastructure building and expanding adaptation capital, though it is limited by capacity constraints and high costs.^² IMF (2021) estimates that Vanuatu would need to spend around 13 percent of GDP annually on public adaptation costs. This indicates that adaptation can be very costly in Vanuatu and therefore balanced combination between non-structural interventions such as mapping escaping routes and high-risk areas and structural measures, namely upgrading infrastructure, would be appropriate. Formulating a financing roadmap for their adaptation plan would help to meet the consistent spending needs over the next decades. However, Vanuatu does not have a cohesive and holistic climate risk financing.

6. Fiscal policies could play a vital role in financing resilience building. Vanuatu has established two instruments to deal with natural disasters. To cover natural disaster response, the finance ministry can disburse emergency funds up to VUV 300 million before the declaration of state of emergency. Once a state of emergency is declared, another 1.5 percent of appropriated budget of the year can be reallocated to respond to the shock. However, when natural disasters are large, these budget tools would not offer sufficient buffer. In these cases, the government relies on grants from development partners and taps into its reserves that have been accumulated from windfall ECP revenues. However, new loans and grants from the international community following a disaster is often inadequate in providing timely assistance and recovery.

7. Recent take up of contingent ex-ante financing arrangements like the Catastrophe Deferred Drawdown Option (Cat DDO) has boosted Vanuatu’s post-disaster resilience. Instruments like Cat DDO ensure immediate liquidity in the aftermath of disasters, including health-related events, and are usually cheaper than the cost of maintaining reserve funds. ^³ Vanuatu secured a Cat DDO facility of US$ 10 million contingent grant in January 2020 and received a payout of the whole amount in April 2020 to support the country’s response to the combined impacts of the global COVID-19 pandemic and TC Harold. This experience highlights the important role that risk sharing instruments can play.

8. While Vanuatu has built its post-disaster resilience over the recent years, it still lags in building ex-ante resilience that could substantially lower the costs of natural disasters. Vanuatu currently does not have green fund for adaptation needs. Creating a trust fund with windfall revenues from the ECP and using the returns to finance adaptive capacity building is an option to consider. Alternatively, Vanuatu with its large tourism sector could follow the approach in Maldives and impose a green tax on visitors that can then be used for resilience building. ^⁴ Finally, Vanuatu could also allocate a share of national budget specifically to resilient infrastructure building like in the case of Bangladesh’s Climate Fiscal Framework (CFF) where about 2 percent of the national budget was allocated to resilient infrastructure building in 2017. It is critical that Vanuatu incorporate a climate change expenditure tagging system to monitor and track climate-related expenditures in the national budget system like in Nepal. This public financial management (PFM) tool would help the governments identify financial gaps, effectively mobilize investment to attain the national action plans, evaluate the climate financing activities and improve accountability (CPI, 2018; GFLAC and UNDP, 2018).

9. Vanuatu has an underinsurance problem whereby few people have adequate protection in the event of natural disasters. The VNPF has initiated an instrument to provide support of up to VUV 150,000 from the provident fund in the event of a tropical cyclone. However, this only caters to the small subset of formal sector employees. Vanuatu has actively engaged with development partners in the Climate risk insurance initiative, a micro-insurance scheme for farmers and rural households. Vanuatu does not have any sovereign national disaster risk insurance. Previous attempts at a regional risk pool such as the Pacific Catastrophe Risk Insurance Scheme (PCRIC) have failed to garner sufficient buy-in due to the high expenses and high barriers to access.^⁵

10. Vanuatu faces severe challenges in securing financing for building adaptation capital despite the high vulnerability to climate change. Vanuatu is around the median amongst PICs in access to climate financing in terms of amount of funding approved to GDP while the absolute amount is the third largest in the region. Given the capacity constraints, meeting the stringent requirement for financing from multilateral climate funds like Green Climate Fund (GCF) results in lengthy timelines. ^⁶ A large share of the bilateral donor assistance is also sourced through multilateral entities. Vanuatu currently relies on regional bodies like the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) to act as accreditation entities, exacerbating an already cumbersome coordination process.^⁷ Recent work by staff addresses the challenges faced by PICs and provides some recommendations to improve the accessibility of these funds. With a more developed capital markets and sustainable debt levels, Vanuatu could consider issuing sovereign green bonds like Fiji did in 2017. For now, given its economic position and limited market access, tapping into grant financing would be the most viable.

11. Vanuatu has made strides in adapting to climate change but there is scope for more action. Adapting to climate change is a multifaceted process and involves making physical infrastructure more resilient to climate shocks, making the processes for policy decision-making more agile in the face of these shocks, and educating the public about their role in adapting to climate change. Sufficient monitoring and tracking of their adaptation spending and improving the public investment management efficiency are essential. Finally, development partners have played an active role in helping Vanuatu build its adaptive capacity so far, but more resources need to be mobilized for small states like Vanuatu to effectively cope with climate change risks.

References

Agarwal, Ruchir. Vybhavi Balasundharam, Patrick Blagrave, Eugenio Cerutti, Ragnar Gudmundsson, and Racha Mousa, Forthcoming, “Climate Change in South Asia: Further Need for Mitigation and Adaptation” (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
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Carbon Disclosure Project, 2014, “Protecting our Capital: How Climate Adaptation in Cities Creates A Resilient Place for Business,” July.
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International Monetary Fund, 2019, Building Resilience in Developing Countries vulnerable to large natural disasters, IMF Policy Paper, June (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
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International Monetary Fund, 2021, Fiscal Policies To Address Climate Change In Asia And The Pacific, APD-FAD Departmental Paper, March (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
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World Bank, 2010, “Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change: A Synthesis Report” (Washington: World Bank).
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World Bank, 2018, “Webinar on Demystifying Catastrophe Bonds for Debt Managers” (Washington: World Bank).
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Vanuatu was recommended for graduation from the least developed countries (LDC) category by the Committee for Development Policy (CDP) at the 2012 triennial review. Following cyclone Pam in 2015 a three-year extension was granted by the UN General Assembly, with graduation postponed to 4 December 2020.

Vanuatu is the largest labor supplier to the seasonal worker program (SWP) of Australia and the Recognized Seasonal Employer (RSE) program in New Zealand.

See Annex II.

Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft and Ruhr University Bochum, Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV) publishes the World Risk Index based on countries’ exposure, vulnerability, susceptibility, lack of coping capacities and lack of adaptive capacities.

The state of emergency has been extended to the end of 2021.

Category 5 TC Harold caused significant damage to shelter, schools, health infrastructure and supplies, agricultural crops, power and telecommunications; affecting an estimated 43 percent of the population (United Nations, UNSDG | UN in Action – Vanuatu). Damages by TC Harold are estimated at VUV 56.0 billion (damages to infrastructure and assets are estimated at VUV 27.7 billion), accounting for over 50 percent of GDP (July 2020, Vanuatu Recovery Strategy 2020–2023, Government of Vanuatu).

Open market operations rose from 600 million Vatu per week at the beginning of 2020 to 800 million Vatu per week at the end of the year. Excess reserves are over 31 billion Vatu at end-2020 while the target level is 3 billion Vatu. Since the reactivation of Imports Substitution and Export Finance Facility (ISEFF) and the Disaster Reconstruction Credit Facility (DRCF), 500 million Vatu has been made available to commercial banks under each of the facilities. The ISEFF is a back- to-back lending facility to businesses offered through commercial banks and DRCF is offered to businesses through commercial banks for the purpose of rehabilitation and reconstruction post disasters.

The average inflation rate of 2019Q3–2020Q2 is 3.8 percent.

The financial sector in Vanuatu has assets of about 155 percent of GDP and is dominated by five commercial banks that account for 131 percent of GDP. Of the five banks, four are foreign-owned and one is National Bank of Vanuatu (NBV) which is owned by the VNPF and the government.

According to the Vanuatu National Deployment and Vaccination Plan, in 2021, targeted people include health workers and border staff (1 percent of the population), persons over 55 years of age (11.3 percent of the population) and persons aged over 35 with co-morbidities (7.1 percent of the population).

Vanuatu started to issue special visa allowing experts of infrastructure projects to enter the country during the border closure.

The 2021 budget aims to achieve the objectives of the National Sustainable Development Plan (NSDP) 2030 and address challenges from the pandemic and natural disasters.

Staff estimates that the cyclically adjusted fiscal balance in 2021 is -2.5 percent compared to 1.1 percent in 2020.

Ministry of Finance and Economic Management (MFEM) publishes monthly report of overall budget execution and quarterly expenditure report about expenditure of each ministry, while the publishment tends to be delayed. The Central Tender Board (CTB) is responsible to coordinate and manage the government's tender process for higher value procurement that the value of purchase exceeds VUV 10,000,000 threshold. Tender results are publicly available.

Prudent debt management is embedded in Vanuatu’s legal framework. Additional anchors in this framework include allowing only concessional borrowing and positive recurrent balance over the medium term.

The baseline scenario assumes the authorities’ current fiscal rules, namely allowing only concessional borrowing and positive recurrent balance over the medium term.

In 2017, the Council of Ministers endorsed the Revenue Review Committee’s proposals focusing on the introduction of progressive personal and corporate income taxes for higher-income households and larger businesses. The corporate income tax was proposed at a flat rate of 17 percent.

See footnote 9 in the Staff Report for the 2019 Article IV Consultation.

The compensation increased from 12.7 percent of GDP in 2018 to 15.4 percent in 2020, partly reflecting a supreme court order for proper adjustment of inflation on wages.

Government-guaranteed debts for GBE such as Air Vanuatu, accounted for 4 percent of total public debt at end- 2020. In addition, GBEs, including Air Vanuatu, hold non-publicly guaranteed liabilities.

The RBV’s policy framework for containing inflation is (i) defense of exchange rate peg which allows it to import low inflation from Australia and New Zealand; (ii) bank’s statutory reserve deposit requirements; (iii) open market operations; and (iv) rediscount rates.

Planned infrastructure projects include development of a submarine cable, electricity generation plants and roads.

Vanuatu’s AML/CFT regime and its effectiveness were last assessed by the Asia/Pacific Group on Money Laundering (APG) in 2015. The next review by APG is likely to be postponed to 2023.

The government took direct control of financial distressed Air Vanuatu in March 2021, which was in the process of purchasing four new aircrafts from Airbus estimated at USD 185 million —around 20 percent of GDP.

See the Informational Annex for more details.

Prepared by Vybhavi Balasundharam.

See Box 1 in 2018 Vanuatu Article IV report for more details.

REO Program required applicants to invest USD 230,000 in real estate related investments to obtain Vanuatu citizenship.

Citizens of North Korea, Yemen, Syria, Iraq, and Iran are not allowed to apply.

See examples in St. Lucia, the sustainable growth fund in St. Kitts and Nevis.

No information on the citizenship of the applicants, acceptance rate and number of approved applications is publicly available. In the current vetting system, Vanuatu’s Financial Intelligence Unit is tasked with conducting only a criminal background check and no further due diligence is performed by the Citizenship Office.

Prepared by Yinqiu Lu.

The Risk Assessment Matrix (RAM) shows events that could materially alter the baseline path (the scenario most likely to materialize in the view of IMF staff). The relative likelihood is the staff’ s subjective assessment of the risks surrounding the baseline (“ low” is meant to indicate a probability below 10 percent, “ medium” a probability between 10 and 30 percent, and “ high” a probability between 30 and 50 percent). The RAM reflects staff views on the source of risks and overall level of concern as of the time of discussions with the authorities. Non-mutually exclusive risks may interact and materialize jointly.

Prepared by Seruwaia Cagilaba.

A report of the Committee on Payments and Market Infrastructures (CPMI) published in 2020 based on SWIFT data estimated that the decline in number of active correspondent banks worldwide has been around 22% between 2011 and 2019.

It accounts for 17.2% of GDP in 2019. Source: World Bank World Development Indicators on Personal Remittances https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.TRF.PWKR.DT.GD.ZS

Prepared by Seruwaia Cagilaba.

The top foreign exchange earners in Vanuatu is tourism followed by sales revenues from the Economic Citizenship Program, personal remittances (from Seasonal Workers Program and Recognised Seasonal Employer scheme), and export earnings from kava, coconut oil, copra, and cocoa.

Tropical Cyclone Pam in 2015 and Tropical Cyclone Harold in 2020.

In October 2019, the Vanuatu government opened Sino Van, the country’s first fish canning company since Palekula Fishing Base operations closed in 1987. See more information in: https://dailypost.vu/news/sino-van-launches-after-15-years/article_9093579c-f6a1–11e9-b77a-734bc171a910.html

For more details see page 3 of the Government of the Republic of Vanuatu, 2021, “Budget 2021 Volume 1 Fiscal Strategy Report Incorporating the Economic and Fiscal Update and the Budget Policy Statement”

Vanuatu’s Literacy Rate (among the population aged 15 years and older) was 87.5% in 2018 according to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics. http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/vu

A country’s economic freedom is assessed based on twelve factors which include property rights, judicial effectiveness, government integrity, government spending, tax burden, fiscal health, business freedom, labor freedom, monetary freedom, trade freedom, investment freedom, and financial freedom. A score of 50 or below in any of these twelve areas suggests economic repression. It should be noted that there is uncertainty around the point estimates for each aspect measured by the index and uncertainty bands are not provided by the compiler.

Business freedom is a measure of how efficient a country’s regulations are and whether business operations are being restricted by regulations and the infrastructure environment.

Financial freedom is a measure of banking sector efficiency and whether the banking sector is free of gov government interference in the financial sector. This means the central bank is not independent, there is significant control and restrictions on financial institutions, and the central bank has weak control on contract enforcement and fraud prevention in the financial sector. It suggests that government owns and controls financial institutions with a large minority share of overall financial sector assets.

For more details pls. see p.22 of the IMF, 2018, Vanuatu: 2018 Article IV Consultation, IMF Country Report No. 18/10

World Bank’s Rural Electrification Project Stage 2 started in 2017 and is expected to provide better access to solar energy in rural areas across Vanuatu.

ADB’s Energy Access Project started in 2017 is expected to provide better access to renewable energy on the island of Santo.

Interchange Limited, a major telecommunications company in Vanuatu has invested Vatu 550M to date on its Interchange Cable Network 2 (ICN2) project.

The Project was funded by the Enhanced Integrated Framework (EIF) and the Australian Government. The Vanuatu Government provided in-kind contribution, in terms of personnel and ICT support. The main implementing partner was the United Nations for Trade and Development, UNCTAD.

Prepared by Yinqiu Lu.

Pacific islands small states include Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.

The FDI inflows data are compiled by RBV in line with the Balance of Payments Manual 6.

Two reasons could explain the size difference. First, the RBV FDI data capture the realized FDI while the VIPA data record the proposed value of approved foreign investment, which may differ from what is materialized. Second, as the RBV FDI data capture the net change in domestic residents’ FDI liabilities to foreigners, an exit of foreign investment would lead to a decline in FDI inflows while the VIPA data do not record the exit of previous foreign investment.

VIPA Corporate Report (2018).

Trade Policy Framework Update 2019–2025, Government of Vanuatu.

Prepared by Vybhavi Balasundharam.

Adaptive capacity refers to physical, economic, natural, and human capital that is resilient to climate change risks (Carbon Disclosure Project, 2014). Examples include improving crop and livestock production practices for higher food security and farmer income; safeguarding communities in coastal areas; enhancing early-warning systems, climate-resilient building measures and water management.

CAT bonds provide a hedge against natural disaster liabilities by transferring risks to capital markets. They are ideal for covering low frequency, high severity events like tropical storms and hurricanes. Cat DDO is a risk retention instrument ideal for medium frequency, medium severity events like floods. Reserve funds are appropriate for covering high frequency, low severity events like local floods and landslides. See IMF (2019) and World Bank (2010) for discussion on options for financing different types of disaster risk.

Maldives levied a green tax of six dollars per person per day from resorts, vessels, and hotels and three dollars per person per day from guest houses from 2016 and some of this revenue was planned to be used for resilience building.

Only 5 of the 15 PICs signed up for the PCRIC scheme. In 2015, the pilot scheme paid $1.9 million to support Vanuatu’s emergency response after it was hit by TC Pam. Vanuatu has since withdrawn from the PCRIC due to high expenses and low returns. Note that a similar scheme in the Caribbean – which is mostly comprised of small island nations facing similar threats – has had far more buy-in with 19 countries contribution to the regional risk pool.

Apart from some regional projects, Vanuatu currently has only 1 project under GCF that focuses on resilience development planning and a few in pipeline. This one project under GCF required between three and four years of negotiation.

Vanuatu is currently trying to get their DoFT to become an accreditation entity. The process is expected to take many years.

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Vanuatu: 2021 Article IV Consultation -Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Vanuatu

Author:

International Monetary Fund. Asia and Pacific Dept

Volume/Issue:: Volume 2021: Issue 208

Publisher:: International Monetary Fund

ISBN:: 9781513597171

ISSN:: 1934-7685

Pages:: 95

DOI:: https://doi.org/10.5089/9781513597171.002

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GDP Per Capita of Pacific Island Countries, 2020

(In U.S. dollars)

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Balance of Payment, Travel Receipts, 2019

(In percent of GDP)

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2020 World Risk Index

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Selected PICs: Visitor Arrivals

(12-month percent change, includes tracking estimates)

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Contribution to Inflation

(In percent, year-on-year)

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System-wide NPL ratio

(In percent)

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Real GDP

(Index 2019=100)

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Government Revenue

(In Millions of Vatu)

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Total Public and Public Guaranteed Debt

(In percent of GDP)

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Fiscal Balance Path

(In percent of GDP)

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Public and Publicly Guaranteed Debt

(In percent of GDP)

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Fiscal Balance Path

(In percent of GDP)

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Present Value of Public and Publicly Guaranteed Debt

(In percent of GDP)

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Deposit and Private Credit Growth

(In percent, Quarter-on Quarter)

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Ratio of NPL net of provisions to capital

(In percent)

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Banks’ Asset Quality as of 2020

(In percent)

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Loan Distribution by Sector

(In percent)

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NPL Distribution by Sector

(In percent)

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^{Figure 1.}

Vanuatu: Real Sector Developments

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^{Figure 2.}

Vanuatu: External Sector Developments

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^{Figure 3.}

Vanuatu: Fiscal and Monetary Sector Developments

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^{Figure 4.}

Vanuatu: Financial Sector Developments

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Government Revenue

(In Millions of Vatu)

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Current Account

(In percent of GDP)

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Select Credit Items of the Current Account

(In percent of GDP)

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Nominal Effective Exchange Rate and Real Effective Exchange Rate

(Increase=appreciation)

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Official Foreign Exchange Reserves

(In millions of US dollars)

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Number of Active Correspondents

(Index2011 = 100)

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Number of Active USD Correspondents

(Index 2011 = 100)

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Total Tuna Caught by Vanuatu Fishing Vessels

(In Tonnes)

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Individuals Using the Internet

(In percent of population)

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Access to Electricity

(In percent of population)

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Index of Economic Freedom, Vanuatu

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Vanuatu: Estimates of Governance, 2019

(Scale of-2.5 to 2.5; higher values represent stronger governance)

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Vanuatu: Governance Rank, 2019

Percentile rank among all countries (ranges from 0 (lowest) to 100 (highest) rank)

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Foreign Direct Investment, Inflows

(In percent of GDP)

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Comparison of VIPA and RBV FDI series

(In billions of Vatu)

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Economic Activity and Proposed Foreign Investment

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Proposed Investment Value and Number of Local Employment

(Top 10 activities, In percent of total, 2010–19)

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Proposed Investment Value by Source Country

(In billions of Vatu)

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Economic Freedom: Vanuatu vs. Comparators

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2020 World Risk Index

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Gross Debt and Revenue

(In percent of GDP, 2019)

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Net ODA Receipts

(In percent of GNI, 2019)

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Public Annual Adaptation Costs

(In percent of GDP)

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Amount of Funding Approved

(In millions of US dollars)

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Amount of Funding Approved

(In percent of 2019 GDP)

Foresee

^{Table 1.}

Vanuatu: SDGs Identified in the National Sustainable Development Plan 2016 to 2030 (Vanuatu 2030)^{^1/}

		Key elements identified by the Vanuatu 2030	Corresponding SDGs ^{^2/}	Role of the IMF
I. Society Pillar				>TA on PFM with a particular focus on increased fiscal resilience, transparency and accountability > TA on financial supervision to support financial deepening and inclusion
	1. Vibrant cultural identity
	2. Quality Education	4 Quality Education
	3. Quality Health Care	3 Good Health and Well Being
	4. Social Inclusion	5 Gender Equality	10 Reduced Inequality
	5. Security, Peace and Justice	16 Peace, Justice, and Strong Institution
	6. Strong and Effective Institutions	16 Peace, Justice, and Strong Institution
II. Environmental Pillar				> Provide analytical and policy framework on how to incorporate the cost of natural disasters and climate change > Coordination with the World Bank Group and development partners
	1. Food and Nutrition Security	2 Zero Hunger
	2. Blue-Green Economic Growth	7 Affordable and Clean Energy
	3. Climate and Disaster Resilience	13 Climate Action
	4. Natural Resource Management	6 Clean Water & Sanitation	14 Sustainable Use of Oceans
	5. Ecosystems and Biodiversity	12 Responsible Consumption	15 Protect Forests & Ecosystem
III. Economy Pillar				> Surveillance and policy advice on macro-economic policiesŸ > TA on tax administration reform and domestic revenue mobilization > Coordination with the World Bank Group and development partners > Capacity development
	1. Stable and Equitable Growth	8 Inclusive Economic Growth & Decent Work
	2. Improve Infrastructure	9 Resilient Infrastructure & Innovation
	3. Strengthen Rural Communities	11 Sustainable Cities & Communities
	4. Create jobs and business opportunities	1 No Poverty	17 Partnerships for the Goals

^{^1/}Cited from p.32 of IMF, 2019, Vanuatu: 2019 Article IV Consultation, IMF Country Report No. 19/162.

^{^2/}Staff compilation.

Topics

Countries

Series

About

Resources

Abstract

Pre-Pandemic Landscape and Challenges

Recent Developments, Outlook and Risks

Authorities’ Views

Sustaining Recovery and Growth

A. Fiscal Policy

Authorities’ Views

B. Monetary and Financial Sector Policy

Authorities’ Views

C. Macro-Structural and Governance Issues

Authorities’ Views

Capacity Development Integration

Authorities’ Views

Staff Appraisal

Annex I. Authorities Response to Fund Policy Advice

Annex II. Economic Citizenship Program: An Update1

Annex III. External Sector Assessment1

Annex IV. Risk Assessment Matrix1

Annex V. Recent Developments in Correspondent Banking Relationships in the Pacific Island Countries1

References

Annex VI. Promoting Economic Diversification in the Post-COVID Era1

References

Annex VII. Foreign Direct Investment in Vanuatu 1

Annex VIII. Adaptation to Climate Change in Vanuatu 1

References

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Table of Contents

Headings

Figures

Metrics

Foresee

Annex II. Economic Citizenship Program: An Update^¹

Annex III. External Sector Assessment^¹

Annex IV. Risk Assessment Matrix^¹

Annex V. Recent Developments in Correspondent Banking Relationships in the Pacific Island Countries^¹

Annex VI. Promoting Economic Diversification in the Post-COVID Era^¹

Annex VII. Foreign Direct Investment in Vanuatu ^¹

Annex VIII. Adaptation to Climate Change in Vanuatu ^¹