Slovak Republic: 2018 Article IV Consultation—Press Release; Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director for the Slovak Republic
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International Monetary Fund. European Dept.
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Publication Date:
26 Jul 2018
eISBN:
9781484370896
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English
Keywords:
ISCR; CR; Slovakia; government; IMF staff projection; holding; banking sector; core inflation; IMF staff estimate; potential GDP; foreign currency
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2018 Article IV Consultation-Press Release; Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director for the Slovak Republic

Abstract

2018 Article IV Consultation-Press Release; Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director for the Slovak Republic

Context

1. The Slovak economy is enjoying consecutive years of favorable performance. Supported by strong credit and jobs growth, real per capita GDP expanded by about 3 percent annually during the last five years taking both the unemployment rate and the fiscal deficit to their lowest levels ever. Real GDP growth is expected to pick up further in the medium term reflecting additional investments and capacity expansion in the automotive sector. The output gap is slightly positive, while external sector developments are in line with long-term averages (Figure 1).

Figure 1.
Figure 1.

Slovak Republic: Output Gap and External Position

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

2. With the cyclical recovery completed, the economy is facing challenges in the form of acute labor shortages and rising household indebtedness. The share of survey respondents reporting labor shortages in the industrial sector, where the problem is most critical, increased by five folds over the last five years (Figure 2). After a decade of double-digit credit growth, household indebtedness, albeit from a low level, has more than doubled relative to GDP and household income, posing risks to banks and overall economy.

Figure 2.
Figure 2.

Slovak Republic: Challenges to Productivity and Growth

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

3. There are also long-standing challenges that are likely to affect productivity and potential growth. Post-crisis employment and total factor productivity growth rates have been less than half of their pre-crisis levels, in line with developments in Central European peers. Shortcomings in education and institutional quality and the projected decline in the workforce, if left unaddressed, may further dent productivity growth (Figure 2). Key indicators point to notable gaps in education outcomes relative to European Union (EU) peers, partly due to diverging performance of students impacted by school location and socioeconomic background. Slovakia is also set to experience one of the fastest decline in working age population in the EU in coming decades which, besides putting pressures on labor supply, may affect productivity due to ageing of the workforce. In addition, survey-based indicators show that the quality of institutions, particularly that of judiciary and public administration, is perceived to be in need of improvement.

4. Against this background, this year’s consultation addresses how structural, fiscal and financial policies can mitigate Slovakia’s challenges to ensure a sustained convergence to EU income levels.

Recent Developments

5. Real GDP growth in 2017 was mostly driven by domestic demand. Strong credit growth on the back of accommodative financial conditions, robust job creation, and rising wages continued to bolster private consumption (Table 1, Figure 3). Investment also contributed to growth, reversing the fall in 2016 caused by a slow start in the implementation of the 2014–20 programming period for EU funds. The economy expanded by 3.6 percent y-o-y during 2018: Q1. Headline and core inflation accelerated in 2017 with core inflation reaching 1.8 percent, well above the euro area average, driven by higher processed food prices in the second half of the year. Inflation accelerated further in 2018 reaching 2.9 percent y-o-y in April driven by food, transport, and services prices.

Table 1.

Slovak Republic: Summary of Economic Indicators, 2015–23

(Percent, unless otherwise indicated)

article image
Sources: National Authorities; and IMF staff calculations.

Average of interest rates on new housing loans to households and loans of less than EUR 1 million to nonfinancial corporations (all maturities).

Average of interest rates on new deposits with agreed maturity (up to 1 year) from households and nonfinancial corporations.

Figure 3.
Figure 3.

Slovak Republic: Real Sector Developments

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Note: CE-3 consists of the following three Central European countries: Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland.

6. Broad-based employment growth continued to reduce both overall and long-term unemployment rates albeit with significant heterogeneities across regions. Strong labor demand has led to a decline in the unemployment rate from about 14 percent during 2010–14 to below 8 percent at end-2017. Regional differences have declined but remain high with the unemployment rate ranging from 4.2 percent in Bratislava to 12 percent in Eastern Slovakia (Figure 3). Low labor mobility, in part due to insufficient transport infrastructure and underdeveloped rental housing markets, contributes to relatively higher unemployment rates in the Central and Eastern regions. At the same time, the coexistence of robust wage growth and a high share of long-term unemployed despite rising vacancies, is a clear sign of skills mismatch and shortage.

7. Private sector credit growth continued at a brisk pace. Despite a slowdown in mortgage credit growth, partly reflecting macroprudential measures taken to date, overall private sector credit rose by 11 percent in 2017 (Figure 4). Strong credit demand from households and more recently from non-financial corporates (NFCs) is supported by robust economic growth and the preference to lock in lower borrowing costs for longer maturities while ECB monetary policy remains accommodative. On the supply side, declining interest margins have put downward pressure on bank profitability, encouraging an overall easing of credit conditions and volume growth. The composite indicator of financial cycle used by the National Bank of Slovakia (NBS) suggests that the phase and magnitude of the current financial cycle is similar to that of the 2005–07 with the current cycle driven more by lending to households than to corporates and by growing risk appetite within the banking sector.

Figure 4.
Figure 4.

Slovak Republic: Credit Developments

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

8. Benefitting from strong growth and policy efforts, overall fiscal deficit declined significantly reaching 1 percent of GDP in 2017. Strong fiscal consolidation of 1.7 percent of GDP during 2015–16 was driven by developments on both revenue and expenditure sides (Text Table1). On the revenue side, consolidation was aided by higher social security contributions from strong employment growth. VAT and PIT receipts also showed buoyancy as a share of GDP, but were countered by lower CIT receipts. On the spending side, favorable macroeconomic and financial developments reduced the interest bill and expenses on social benefits, while non-wage current spending was also reduced significantly. Gross public debt remained on a firmly downward trajectory reaching 50.9 percent as of end-2017 (Table 2).

Text Table 1.

Fiscal Consolidation during 2015–17 and Sources (Percentage points of GDP)

article image
Source: IMF staff calculations.
Table 2.

Slovak Republic: Statement of Operations of the General Government, 2015–23

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Sources: National Authorities; and IMF staff estimates and projections.

9. Slovakia’s external position is assessed to be in line with its economic fundamentals. The cyclically-adjusted current account deficit was 2.0 percent of GDP in 2017, marginally below the norm assessed at 2.1 percent; the real effective exchange rate is also assessed to be in line with economic fundamentals (Tables 3 and 4). Slovakia’s gross exports relative to GDP are among the highest in EU reflecting its strong links to European supply chains although the share of domestic value-added in total exports have declined over time (Figure 5). The increase in gross exports as a share of GDP over the past two decades has been supported mostly by the expansion of machinery and transport manufacturing sectors. The primary income account recorded notable negative balances in recent years reflecting dividend outflows, similar to neighboring countries with high levels of FDI stock (Table 3, Figure 5). Despite recent acceleration in wage growth, productivity-adjusted average compensation of employees remains in line with Central European peers. Rising labor shortages in the industrial sector in recent years have not translated into significant wage pressures so far.

Table 3.

Slovak Republic: Balance of Payments, 2015–23

article image
Sources: National Bank of Slovakia; and IMF staff estimates

Does not include the transfer of reserve assets from the NBS to the ECB which took place in 2009

Table 4.

Slovak Republic: External Sector Assessment

article image
Figure 5.
Figure 5.

Slovak Republic: External Sector Competitiveness

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Outlook and Risks

10. Real GDP growth is projected to pick up in 2018–19 before converging to its potential in the medium term. Fueled by ongoing investments in the automotive industry and continued robust growth in wages and private credit, real GDP growth is projected to accelerate to 4 percent in 2018. With higher automotive exports coming into stream beginning in 2019, growth is projected to become more balanced in the medium term. With tight labor market, core inflation rate is expected to stay above 2 percent in 2018 and beyond.

uA01fig01

Output Growth and Demand Components

(Year-on-year percent change)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Sources: Eurostat; and IMF staff calculations.

11. Risks to the outlook are slightly tilted on the downside (Table 5). On the downside, there are external risks from rising protectionism in international trade and possible financial turmoil in the euro area (EA) that could weigh on Slovakia’s export-dependent economy. On the domestic front, persistent labor shortages, particularly for skilled workers, could put the brakes on economic expansion and accelerate wage inflation with a negative impact on competitiveness and investor interest. In addition, a sudden downturn in the economy and the property market can negatively impact households—which have become increasingly vulnerable after a decade of double-digit mortgage credit growth. On the upside, higher public investment from a pick-up in the absorption of EU funds could boost growth further.

Table 5.

Slovak Republic: Risk Assessment Matrix1

article image

The Risk Assessment Matrix (RAM) shows events that could materially alter the baseline path (the scenario most likely to materialize in the view of IMF staff). The relative likelihood is the staff’s subjective assessment of the risks surrounding the baseline (“low” is meant to indicate a probability below 10 percent, “medium” a probability between 10 and 30 percent, and “high” a probability between 30 and 50 percent). The RAM reflects staff views on the source of risks and overall level of concern as of the time of discussions with the authorities. Non-mutually exclusive risks may interact and materialize jointly. “Short term” and “medium term” are meant to indicate that the risk could materialize within 1 year and 3 years, respectively. exclusive risks may interact and materialize jointly. “Short term” and “medium term” are meant to indicate that the risk could materialize within 1 year and 3 years, respectively.

Authorities’ Views

12. The authorities broadly agreed with staff’s views on outlook and risks. They expect slightly higher growth in the near-term driven by stronger exports. They also project somewhat higher overall inflation in the medium-term relative to staff’s forecast. The authorities view risks to the outlook to be more balanced. On the downside, rising trade protectionism and geopolitical tensions are viewed as main external risks. Domestically, they concur with staff’s view that an extended period of high credit growth has made households more vulnerable to downturns and increased labor shortages endanger growth prospects. Upside risks are mostly domestic from faster wage growth that could result in higher growth in private consumption and better fiscal balances, as well as higher capital investment from a faster absorption of EU funds.

Policy Discussion

A. Structural Reforms: Lifting Productivity

Background

13. The sharp increase in labor shortages, including for skilled labor, are among the most severe in the EU (Figure 6). While overall qualification mismatch is moderate, Slovakia has one of the highest level of field-of-study mismatch in the EU. Difficulties in finding qualified workers are likely to limit technology adoption and, if remain unaddressed, could have negative implications for productivity.

Figure 6.
Figure 6.

Slovak Republic: Key Labor Market Challenges

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

14. Significant gaps in education quality contribute to skills shortage and mismatch. Low PISA scores relative to EU average across academic subjects and low participation in early and lifelong education point to significant need for improvement. Inability to attract high quality teachers, partly due to low pay, and an inefficient schooling network are contributing to the poor education performance. Vocational training is widespread, but is not well-connected with work opportunities, resulting in many vocational school graduates pursuing work that is not in their field contributing to skills mismatch. In addition, use of work-based learning in vocational education is limited, hindering school-to-work transition.

15. Low labor force participation of women and various disadvantaged groups limit labor supply. The gender gap in participation has been persistently higher than EU peers, driven mostly by a lack of affordable early childcare facilities and long parental leave hardly taken up by fathers (Box 1). Around 75 percent of women aged between 25 and 49 years report family care responsibilities as the main reason for not participating in the labor market. Labor supply is also constrained by low work intensity among the Roma population, which constitutes a non-negligible share of population, but faces strong integration challenges in the labor market, including due to gaps in skills and education.

16. A menu of short and long-term policies is needed to address labor and skills shortage. In the short run, the focus may need to be on measures to facilitate recruitment of foreign skilled workers, as the policies to increase domestic labor supply may need time to take effect. Most of the reforms are complementary to each other and can mostly be financed by increasing efficiency of current social spending, as well as more efficient and extensive use of EU funds (see para 22).

  • Strengthen the current framework for issuing work permits to foreigners. The amendment to the Employment Services Act has simplified conditions for hiring non-EU nationals for occupations experiencing labor shortages with company-level and regional restrictions. In recent quarters, Slovakia has seen an increase in non-EU workers reflecting policy efforts. However, clarifying the treatment of skilled versus mid- or low-skilled foreign workers and streamlining further time-consuming administrative requirements would help Slovakia compete better with neighboring peers for skilled foreign workers.

  • Focus active labor market policies (ALMP) on building skills. Spending on ALMP is still one of the lowest in the EU and largely focused on job creation, despite rising job vacancies, rather than on employability. Given the skills mismatch between vacancy requirements and the skill set of the long-term unemployed and job-seekers from other disadvantaged groups, efforts should focus more on training, job counseling, and measures to enhance labor mobility, especially for these target groups.

  • Increase labor force participation and employment of women and disadvantaged groups. The authorities’ plan to expand formal childcare services, especially for children aged below three, is appropriate (Box 1). A reform of parental leave benefits to encourage gender parity between paid and unpaid work, including by allowing parents to alternate between periods of leave and work and further supporting flexible employment for mothers, could improve participation of women with children. Policies to establish equal education opportunities for disadvantaged groups, including by expanding the provision of pre-primary education, better integration into standard schools, as well as supporting teacher training in special needs education are welcome and should be steadily pursued.

  • Improve education quality. Higher remuneration to increase attractiveness of the teaching profession should go hand-in-hand with improvements in teachers’ training and the optimization of the regional school network. Policies to increase on-the-job participation of vocational students should focus on strengthening involvement of employers as well as providing effective career guidance and information on curriculum options and employment prospects. In addition, with ageing population and high risks of job automation, a forward-looking strategy for higher education taking into account rapidly changing skills demand is also needed.

17. Perceived gaps in institutional quality are additional drags to productivity growth. Slovakia fares unfavorably in various governance indicators relative to EU peers (Figure 2). Low prosecution rates of cases against public officials and lengthy court procedures contribute to the perception of weak judiciary. The EU 2018 country report highlights several other institutional weaknesses that could result in inefficiencies: frequent change in laws, limited coordination between government ministries, anti-competitive practices in public procurement, and political influence in hiring and functioning of regulatory bodies. Significant compliance gaps in core taxes contribute to low public confidence in the effectiveness and integrity of tax administration.

18. More efficient public institutions would be critical for lifting productivity growth. Staff’s analysis shows that lowering by half the gap between Slovakia and the EU-15 best performer in perception of corruption could yield significant productivity gains in the long run, although these estimates are subject to large uncertainties (Box 2, Chapter II of the Selected Issues Paper). Effective implementation of the recently approved Civil Service Act and the Anti-Offshore Law will be important to limit political influence in public administration and enhance transparency. These measures, together with reforms to increase competition in and transparency of the public procurement system, strengthen judicial independence, and improve tax compliance, could boost future productivity.

Authorities’ Views

19. The authorities broadly agreed on the need for multi-faceted structural policies to lift productivity growth. They highlighted that the government’s recent policy efforts are in line with policy priorities identified by staff.

  • Labor shortages: The authorities are currently finalizing the list of occupations facing labor shortages which will be published in June. They noted that a part of the labor shortage can be met by a slowdown in net emigration and increased inter-regional mobility facilitated by the relocation and commuting allowance. To expand formal childcare services, they noted the construction of 90 additional childcare facilities with a capacity of 1,800 children. They view the disadvantaged groups, which include Roma population and long-term unemployed, as a larger source of potential labor supply than women with small children and highlighted the role of education and ALMP.

  • Education: The authorities’ plans to increase participation in on-the-job training through easing of administrative burdens and increasing cooperation between schools and firms. On education, they are planning to introduce compulsory pre-primary education for children at the age of five, starting in September with the plan to extend it to children at the age of three in the future. Such policies, with time, are expected to integrate Roma population better into the labor force.

  • Institutions: The authorities are working on a comprehensive strategy for corruption prevention. To limit the room and incentives for rent-seeking behavior in public administration, they introduced measures aimed at reducing procedural time of public procurement, increasing transparency through e-procurement, and investing in capacity building. They highlighted that a recent amendment to the Civil Service Act establishes clear rules for recruitment and dismissal of civil servants limiting room for political interference. It also provides an opportunity for greater public scrutiny of nominees for high-level public posts.

B. Fiscal Policy: Increasing Efficiency to Invest in Priority Areas

20. With a positive output gap, the authorities’ objective to continue fiscal consolidation is appropriate. Staff’s baseline projections show that Slovakia is on track to reach its MTO, a structural balance of -0.5 percent of potential GDP, by 2020 and a balanced budget by 2020. Gross public debt will drop below the lower range of the debt ceiling path set by the current Fiscal Responsibility Act (FRA) (Figure 7). The baseline projections assume no additional revenue efficiency gains, and incorporate authorities’ planned infrastructure and education investments as well as projected savings from recent pension and health sector reforms. A declining and low fiscal deficit, single-digit gross financing needs, and stable access to financing are expected to create sizable fiscal space under the FRA in the medium term, which will be available to help mitigate potential macroeconomic shocks and accommodate growth-enhancing public investment. In the near term, there are downside risks to the baseline fiscal scenario because of strong wage pressures in the private sector which could spill over into the public sector. In line with staff’s past policy advice, the authorities are not contemplating introducing any escape clause to the FRA to accommodate specific spending.

Figure 7.
Figure 7.

Slovak Republic: Fiscal Deficit and Public Debt, 2015–23

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

21. In recent years, the authorities’ fiscal policy efforts have focused on improving revenue and expenditure efficiency in line with staff advice. Sustained implementation of the three-phase action plan to fight tax evasion significantly improved VAT compliance (Box 3). The authorities are in the process of formulating a new tax administration reform plan for 2018–20 which aims to simplify taxpayers’ interactions with the tax system, expand e-services, and increase the use of analytics to target non-compliance with tax obligations. These measures are expected to reduce gaps in VAT and CIT further. Staff strongly supports the multi-year thematic spending review program (Value for Money Program) which is entering its third wave in 2018. The program has completed a review of most major ministries and is expected to cover public wage bill this year. However, progress has been limited in prioritizing action plans and realizing operational savings except in the health sector.

22. Staff supports the authorities’ efforts to further increase efficiency of the public sector which can generate significant fiscal resources (Text Table2).

Text Table 2.

Estimated Yields from Proposed Measures

(Cumulative, 2018–2023)

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Source: IMF staff calculations.

Assumes 95 percent ESIF funds allocated to educational and vocational training and network infrastructures and transport and energy will be absorbed; and shows amounts net of what is already budgeted and of needed co-financing.

Assumes Slovakia closes a quarter of its investment efficiency gap with respect to Germany.

Assumes Slovakia closes a quarter of its VAT efficiency gap with EU-28 average.

23. Revenue efficiency. In line with recommendations of the recently completed TADAT assessment, measures to be included in the 2018–20 reform plan need clear prioritization in line with the limited administrative capacity. The focus should be on strengthening and broadening audits to include all core tax areas and upskilling of audit staff, identification and assessment of risks of non-compliance by taxpayers, more effective dispute resolution mechanisms, and communication with taxpayers.

  • Public expenditure efficiency. To fully capture the efficiency gains identified in the expenditure reviews, continued efforts to adequately resource the Implementation Unit and clearly integrate identified savings into the medium-term budgetary process are key. The efficiency of public infrastructure investment is particularly low in Slovakia due to project selection and procurement weaknesses, with an overall efficiency gap of around 23 percent compared to the EU-15 average gap of 13 percent. In keeping with previous staff advice, the authorities are working toward strengthening the public procurement system. Encouragingly, cost assessments have become a standard pre-requisite to procurement in the transport sector. This should be complemented by a prioritization of projects in the sector.

  • EU funds absorption efficiency. Full absorption of EU funds programmed for education and infrastructure would make available nearly €3 billion in additional funding for priority spending from the 2014–20 programming period. But to fully utilize these funds requires improvements in staff expertise and capacity to assess projects, a simplification of national rules, better transparency and more competition in the public procurement process, and more strategic focus of project selection.

uA01fig02

Public Infrastructure Investment Efficiency Gap

(Coverage and Quality of Infrastructure, Compared to the Best Performer)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Sources: IMF Capital Stack and Investment Database, and IMF staff calculations.Note: High number representa lower efficiency.

24. Resources freed up by higher efficiency could be used for priority spending in education, infrastructure and labor market. Slovakia shows significant gaps in motorway infrastructure measured relative to both population and area. As spending on motorway currently captures most spending on transport, other priority needs, such as improving lower-class roads, which carries most road traffic, railway modernization and maintenance of existing roads face resource constraints. The authorities estimate large transport infrastructure investment needs to increase both inter-regional connectivity and connectivity within lagging regions. In addition, there are spending needs in education and ALMP to address deficiencies identified in paragraph 19.

uA01fig03

Education Spending per Student

(USD)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Source: OECD.

25. There is also a scope to raise property and environmental taxes. Bringing Slovakia’s current property and environmental tax revenue in line with the EU average would create up to 1.3 percent of GDP per year in additional revenues. As discussed in previous IMF staff reports, a meaningful increase in property taxes, by linking the taxable amount to the market value of the property, would also support the authorities’ efforts to slow down residential mortgage growth.

uA01fig04

Revenue by Type, 2017

(Percent of GDP)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Sources; Eurostat; and IMF staff estimates.

26. Rising pension and health care costs due to population aging remain the main risk for long-term fiscal sustainability despite recent reforms. Slovakia embarked on an ambitious pension reform in 2012 with an implementation period spanning several years. As prescribed by the reform, in 2017, the pensionable age calculation was changed to link it to average life expectancy. However, an ad hoc measure to increase pensions valorization by 2 percent in 2017 and to introduce higher valorization in 2018–21 for low-income pensioners will likely offset some of the reforms’ hard-earned savings. Inefficiencies in health care spending are being addressed through a series of reforms, including costs savings from better management of hospital personnel, the introduction of an e-health system, and pilot project for diagnosis-linked reimbursement systems.

Authorities’ Views

27. The authorities stressed their commitment to achieve a balanced budget in 2020. For 2018, they project a deficit of 0.8 percent of GDP, but agree with staff that there are some downside risks from higher wage increases in the public sector. They expressed confidence that, if needed, moderate wage increases could largely be absorbed through the reallocation of existing reserve funds. As public debt is projected to fall below the lowest threshold specified in the Fiscal Responsibility Act, the authorities are currently studying possible options for an expenditure ceiling to be introduced in the medium term which could serve as the operational tool for fiscal policy. They expressed interest in a discussion with staff at a later stage when the considerations for such a ceiling or rule are more concrete.

28. The authorities are committed to raising revenue and spending efficiency. On the revenue side, they plan to further improve taxpayer compliance, building on the significant progress made so far. While agreeing to the need to reduce VAT gap further, they expressed some reservations regarding comparing the gap to that of the EU average due to methodological issues. The authorities underscored the high priority placed on the implementation of measures identified by the Value for Money program, and pointed to the ongoing efforts to strengthen the mandate and capacity of the Implementation Unit as indications of their commitment to improving expenditure efficiency across the public sector. They stressed that ongoing spending reviews should undergo regular implementation assessment serving also as the starting point for future follow-up reviews as is the case now in the health sector. They are planning to undertake a Public Investment Management Assessment next year.

C. Financial Sector: Ensuring Stability

29. A sustained period of strong credit growth has increased household indebtedness and related vulnerabilities (Figure 8). The overall household loan stock, at 40 percent of GDP in end-2017, is slightly above the level implied by economic fundamentals as is credit growth to the private sector (See Credit Growth and Macroprudential Policies in the Slovak Republic, Selected Issues Paper for more details). In addition, one third of new loans to households has a loan-to-value ratio of 80 percent indicating a relative elevated share of risky borrowers. However, overall private sector indebtedness remains in line with economic fundamentals. Average house prices have increased, but are significantly below their pre-crisis levels, although apartment prices in certain areas have experienced faster increase.

Figure 8.
Figure 8.

Slovak Republic: Household and Private Sector Indebtedness

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Note: Private sector debt gaps indicate the difference between actual debt and the level consistent with fundamentals. See Credit Growth and Macroprudential Policies in the Slovak Republic, Selected Issues Paper for more details

30. The banking sector is sound, but vulnerable to adverse macroeconomic shocks. Profitability remains high supported by low operating costs. Banks’ capital adequacy strengthened in 2017 due to higher retained earnings and loans are fully funded by domestic deposits (Table 6). Non-performing loans is low and adequately provisioned. Banks have sought to maintain their profitability by expanding their loan books to compensate for low interest rates, which has increased their sensitivity to adverse shocks and, specifically, to a further decline in the net interest margin or an increase in operational cost. Banks also face some risks from increasing maturity mismatches and exposure to the commercial real estate sector.

Table 6.

Slovak Republic: Financial Soundness Indicators, 2011–17

(Percent, unless otherwise indicated)

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Sources: National Bank of Slovakia; Haver; IMF FSI Database; and IMF staff estimates.

2017Q3 data.

2017Q2 data.

31. The authorities have gradually tightened both capital and borrower-based macroprudential measures to counter rising vulnerabilities (Text Table3). The borrower-based measures consisting of limits on Loan-to-value (LTV) ratios and Debt Service-to-Income (DSTI) ratios were initially recommendations, but became binding restrictions and now cover both mortgage and consumer lending as well as bank and non-bank lending. In addition, the countercyclical capital buffer (CCB) on domestic exposures was raised to 0.5 percent in August 2017 and will be raised to 1.25 percent as of August 1, 2018. These core measures are complemented by maturity limits, interest rate sensitivity tests, and a mandatory amortization schedule for annuities. The measures taken to date seem to be slowing down household credit growth, and the share of loan with high LTV ratio is declining. Staff welcomes recent measures to impose limits on the Debt-to-Income ratio (DTI) and further tighten LTV limits.

Text Table 3.

Slovak Republic: Overview of Authorities’ Macroprudential Policy Measures

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Source: National Bank of Slovakia

32. To complement macroprudential policy efforts, consideration could be given to reducing tax subsidies for owner-occupied housing (Figure 9). Staff’s analysis shows that the tax on owner-occupied housing in Slovakia is just 58 percent of the tax-neutral benchmark indicating sizable subsidies consisting of untaxed capital gains and exemption of imputed rent. In Slovakia, main residences are exempt from capital gains tax after 2 years of tenure, which contributes to tax subsidy. The average subsidy on untaxed capital gains could be reduced from the current level of 18 percent to bring it in line with the EU average of 13 percent. In addition, there are also direct subsidies for home ownership for individuals under the age of 35.

Figure 9.
Figure 9.

Slovak Republic: Tax Subsidies for Home Ownership

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Authorities’ Views

33. The authorities view the macroprudential policies taken so far to be adequate and stand ready to further tighten policies if warranted. According to the NBS, the DSTI calibration applied in Slovakia is at least as strict as in other countries for households earning median income and even stricter for those with lower incomes, but it is less binding for households with higher incomes. The DTI limit would curb the risk of excessive borrowing by highly-indebted high-income households and be complementary to existing limits on DSTI by covering the entire income spectrum. They estimate that the second round of macroprudential measures approved in end-May are likely to help slow credit growth by 0.5 to 1.4 percentage points, which could bring the growth of indebtedness more in line with economic fundamentals. However, they stressed that the financial sector conditions remain fluid and are not ruling out further measures including another increase in the countercyclical capital buffer. Regarding subsidies to owner-occupied housing, the national authorities do not view these as significantly contributing to excess demand.

34. The authorities support European efforts to further strengthen banking regulations. However, the national authorities stressed the importance of taking steps to ensure that the relative position of subsidiaries and host supervisors is not undermined by these efforts. Assessments by both SSM and NBS supervisors show that a relatively high profitability and adequate capital buffers provide Slovak banks with room to change their funding structure and absorb the costs of issuing MREL-eligible liabilities if required. Another significant EU level reform, the migration to IFRS 9, was implemented on January 1, but with a five-year transition period. While the change to IFRS 9 is expected to have a mild effect on the banking sector’s own funds as provisioning standards are tightened, it is not expected to have an impact on bank profitability in 2018.

35. The NBS and ECB share a common understanding of financial sector risks and the need for targeted macroprudential measures. There is consensus that the fast rise in household indebtedness represents a risk that has been building for quite some time, underscoring the importance of sustained and continued vigilance in the implementation of targeted non-interest rate policies.

Staff Appraisal

36. The Slovak economy is enjoying consecutive years of favorable performance. Per capita real income grew by around 3 percent annually during the last five years supported by strong labor market dynamics and credit growth. Real GDP growth is expected to reach 4 percent in 2018 and pick up further in the medium term supported by the coming on stream of new production capacity in the automotive sector.

37. The positive medium-term outlook is not without risks. On the downside, there are risks from rising trade protectionism, possible financial turmoil in the EA, and skills shortages in the domestic labor market that could weigh on Slovakia’s export-dependent economy as well as and a sudden downturn in the property market that can affect indebted households and banks. On the upside, higher absorption of EU funds could boost growth further.

38. Staff welcomed policy efforts to address rising labor shortages. Recent measures to facilitate procedures for issuing work permits to foreigners are steps in the right direction and should be strengthened by finalizing the list of occupations and further simplifying administrative procedures. Plans to expand formal childcare services, especially for young children, are expected to help increase female labor force participation and should be complemented by encouraging greater gender flexibility in the use of childcare-related leave.

39. Strong policy implementation is needed to address significant gaps in education and institutional quality. On education, measures to increase attractiveness of the teaching profession and strengthen collaboration between vocational schools and employers are appropriate. These should be complemented by teachers’ training, optimization of regional school network and a forward-looking higher education strategy that takes into account rapidly changing demand for skills. On governance, effective implementation of the recently approved Civil Service Act and the Anti-Offshore Law is important. These reforms, together with measures to increase competition in the public procurement system and improve tax compliance, and anti-corruption efforts, are expected to improve governance.

40. Robust growth and policy efforts are helping to improve fiscal balances and create policy space. Recent fiscal consolidation has been supported by higher social contributions, lower interest payments, and lower social benefits and non-wage current spending. In the absence of further discretionary measures or large wage hikes, the overall fiscal balance is projected to improve further, reaching -0.8 percent of GDP this year and a balanced position in the medium-term. This would create sufficient fiscal buffers to withstand possible macroeconomic shocks, even under the constraints of the Fiscal Responsibility Law.

41. Continued policy efforts to improve efficiency could unlock significant resources. The authorities’ planned measures to combat tax evasion are welcome. On reform of the tax administration, priorities should be strengthening and broadening of audit activities in all core tax areas, reducing risks of tax compliance and improving governance. Strong political commitment is needed to fully capture savings identified in the spending reviews, with continued efforts to strengthen the capacity of the Implementation Unit, and integrate the findings of these reviews in the medium-term budget plans. Additionally, there is scope to save sizable resources in capital investment through strengthened project prioritization and improved public procurement system, which would also ensure timely and full absorption of EU funds.

42. These resources should be used for priority spending in infrastructure, education, and labor market reforms. Staff’s estimates show that, under conservative assumptions, fiscal resources of 3 percent of GDP can be raised through higher efficiency in the public sector with room for additional resources through higher property and environmental taxation. These resources should be used on measures to increase domestic labor supply and address gaps in infrastructure and education quality.

43. The banking sector is sound, but vulnerable to adverse macroeconomic shocks. Banking sector is highly profitable with low levels of non-performing loans that are adequately provisioned. Capital adequacy strengthened further in 2017. However, banks have sought to maintain their profitability by expanding their loan volume to compensate for low interest rates, which has increased household indebtedness significantly. As a result, both household and banking sectors are vulnerable to adverse macroeconomic shocks and possible property market downturns.

44. Pro-active tightening of macroprudential policies by the authorities is slowing down credit growth and building needed buffers. Sustained tightening of macroprudential measures over the last four years targeting risky and highly-indebted borrowers, including the introduction of binding limits on loan-to-value and debt-service-to-income ratios, appear to be slowing down household credit growth. Recently-adopted limits on debt-to-income ratios would complement existing borrower-based measures to dampen further lending growth to highly-indebted borrowers. These measures appropriately balance the need to preserve access to credit for Slovak households with the need to safeguard financial stability. To complement macroprudential policy efforts, consideration could be given to reducing tax subsidies for owner-occupied housing which arise from capital gains exemptions.

45. It is recommended that the next Article IV consultation with the Slovak Republic take place on the standard 12-month consultation cycle.

Low Female Labor Force Participation and Employment in Slovak Republic: The Role of Childcare and Parental Leave Policies

In Slovakia, children and family responsibilities seem to inhibit female labor force participation and employment. A significant number of women report that children and family care are the main reason for not participating in the labor market, and their employment rates are relatively low when they have young children. A cross country analysis of advanced economies suggests that childcare and parental leave policies are primary factors affecting women’s labor force participation (IMF, 2018). Comparing Slovakia’s policies in these areas with its peers and other advanced European countries could therefore help identify priorities.

Relatively low public spending on early childhood education and care, and insufficient formal childcare services put childcare responsibilities on parents. Per child public spending on early childhood education and care is around 2,000 USD PPP, just above one-third of the EU-15 average, with less than half of it going to children aged less than three years old. Not surprisingly, only 0.5 percent of children under three receive formal childcare services compared to 70 percent in Denmark. Parents attribute the reasons for not using formal childcare services primarily to costs.

uA01fig05

Distribution of Children Age under Three Years Old by Type of Childcare

(Percent)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Sources: Eurostat; OECD; and IMF staff calculation.
uA01fig06

Reasons for Not Using Formal Childcare Services

(Percent excl. households explicitly reporting no need for such services)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Source: Eurostat.

Maternity and parental leaves are generous in terms of duration. An eligible Slovak mother is entitled to 34 weeks of paid maternity leave with monthly benefits of 75 percent of her gross wage, compared to the EU-average of nearly 20 weeks (with average monthly benefits of around 78 percent of gross wages).1 In addition, after the paid maternity leave, mothers can stay on parental leave until the child is three years old, which is one of the longest parental leave periods among advanced EU countries receiving €213.20 per month. Similar to mothers, fathers are eligible for parental leave and the parental allowance. Since 2011, fathers have been allowed to take up to 28 weeks of paternity leave and receiving benefits similar to those of the maternity leave—providing that the contributory criteria are met and that the mother does not receive maternity or parental benefits at the same time.

uA01fig07

Paid Maternity and Parental Benefits

(Weeks and percent of earnings)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Source: OECD.

Childcare-related leaves are mainly used by women. Despite the right to use parental and paternity leave, participation of men in childcare has been low. While the limited male uptake of parental leave is likely due to relatively higher-foregone earned income, their low participation in parental leave could also be due to social attitudes towards the roles of mothers in caring for young children. Nearly 85 percent of the Slovaks think that paid leave to take care of children should be taken entirely or mostly by mothers, compared to about 50 percent for the EU-15 citizens. Inflexibility and generous duration of the parental leave, together with limited opportunities for part-time employment, also discourage mothers to return to work early.

uA01fig08

Beneficiaries of Slovakia’s Parental and Maternity Leave

(Thousand persons)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Sources: Eurofound (2017)
uA01fig09

Attitudes towards Gender Distribution of Childcare

(Percent)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Sources: OECD

To increase female labor force participation and employment, the authorities have identified the following areas as priorities.

  • Formal childcare services. The 2018 Budget Plan highlights the role of childcare provisions, especially for children aged under three in supporting female labor force participation. The legislative framework for childcare facilities was adopted in early 2017, and resources have been allocated for construction of 90 childcare facilities for children below three with a capacity to absorb 1,800 children during 2017–20.

  • Flexibility of parental benefits. The 2017 public expenditure review on labor market and social policies notes that the parental leave period is relatively long, but is inflexible for both parents to share responsibility and alternate between periods of leave and work. In addition, the length of parental leave and cash benefits for parents are not found to have significant impacts on a family’s decision to have children.

  • Targeting of family benefits. The 2017 public expenditure review concludes that total public spending on family policies as a share of GDP are around the OECD average. Nonetheless, most family benefits (such as child and family allowances) are provided to beneficiaries regardless of their income, resulting in a lower benefit amount per beneficiary. The review therefore recommends better targeting of family benefits to improve the effectiveness of resources allocated for family policies.

Reference

International Monetary Fund (2018), “Labor Force Participation in Advanced Economies: Drivers and Prospects”, in “World Economic Outlook, April 2018 – Cyclical Upswing, Structural Change”, Washington DC, IMF, April 2018.

1 To be eligible for the maternity benefits, a beneficiary has to have contributed to the health insurance for at least 270 days in the two years preceding the childbirth. Monthly maternity benefits are capped at two times of the average national gross wages.

Potential Productivity Gains from Strengthening Institutions and Reducing Skill Mismatch

Staff’s analysis tries to shed light on the long-term productivity gains from reduction of skills mismatch and improvement in institutional quality (Chapter II of the Selected Issues Paper). To understand the link between productivity and its determinants, the following panel regression is estimated for 26 European countries over 1995–2016:

T F P i , t = α S i , t + μ J i , t + β X i , t + γ t + θ i + ϵ i , t

where,

  • TFP is estimated based on the production function approach.

  • Skill mismatch index Si,t is constructed following Estevao and Tsounta (2011) which uses data on employment and labor force by education level.

  • Quality of public institutions Ji,t is measured by the Worldwide Governance Indicator on control of corruption, which captures perceptions of the extent to which public authority is exercised for private gains.

  • Other control variables Xi,t to capture the role of market friendliness, intensity of research and development, and human capital are mainly from the Fraser Institute, the World Development Indicators, and the World Economic Forum, some of which are survey based indicators. As an alternative measure, we used judicial independence index from Fraser Institute Index of Economic Freedom, which measures the perception of judiciary independence from political influences of members of government, citizens, or firms.

The empirical results show that skill mismatch and quality of public institutions are significantly correlated with productivity in the long run. A low skill mismatch and a better control for corruption are positively associated with high level of productivity. These results, including controls for other policy variables, are robust to specification changes, use of an alternative measure for institutional quality, and to using labor productivity as a dependent variable. The results are also consistent with the literature.

Closing half of the gaps in corruption perception and skill mismatch between Slovakia and the best EU performer could yield significant productivity gains. Lowering half of the difference between Slovakia and the best EU performer in perceived corruption could increase productivity by 10 percent in the long run. The results for Slovakia are robust to using different methodology and other measures of public institutional quality—such as independence of the judiciary and impartiality of courts (IMF 2016). The robust results underscore the importance of broad-based structural reforms to strengthen governance and public institutions. Meanwhile, potential gains in productivity from closing half of the gap in skill mismatch could be around 6 percent in the long-run. Potential gains from other policy measures range from 2–5 percent.

Although the empirical results are consistent with the literature, the large productivity gain estimates should be interpreted with caution. First, due to a likely correlation among policy variables, the partial gains could be overestimated, thus resulting in a smaller overall productivity gains from addressing various policies simultaneously than the sum of the partial gain estimates reported above. Second, the efforts and time required to close half of the gap will differ across policies. More specifically, Slovakia is lagging significantly behind the best EU performer in terms of perceived corruption and other indicators of governance and institution quality, and hence the simulated policy improvement will likely require substantial reforms over a long period of time. Third, there are considerable uncertainties surrounding the estimates for productivity gains. For example, the 95 percent confidence band for productivity gains from improvements in corruption perception is 0.4–21.

References:

Estevão, M. and E. Tsounta (2013), “Has the Great Recession Raised U.S. Structural Unemployment?”, IMF working paper: WP/11/105.

International Monetary Fund (2016), “Central, Eastern, and South-eastern Europe – How to Get back on the Fast Track”, Regional Economic Issues (REI), May 2016.

Domestic Revenue Mobilization: Achievements, Policy Efforts and Priorities

The Slovak authorities have undertaken sustained efforts to improve tax compliance and reduce VAT, CIT, and excise tax gaps which peaked following the global financial crisis.

The action plan for combating tax evasion was implemented in 2012, and supplemented with additional measures in 2015. The action plan initially included 50 broad-ranging measures, including a pilot project to encourage inter-agency collaboration on solving cases of serious tax fraud, and the introduction of cashless payments and electronic control statements (KV). In 2015–16, the authorities took additional measures to supplement the action plan that focused on higher efficiency of taxpayer identification, collection, and tax recovery, and include excise taxes.

VAT. Initial efforts focused on reducing tax evasion to increase VAT revenue collection. The plan was successful in reducing the VAT base gap from over 40 percent in 2012 to 26.3 percent in 2017; VAT collections rose by 1.35 percent of GDP over that same period.

CIT. In 2013, the CIT rate was raised from 19 to 23 percent and special levies on banks and regulated industries were introduced to raise revenues. Following the implementation of measures to broaden the tax base in 2014–15—including tightening the loss carry forward rule and the introduction a thin capitalization rule—the CIT rate was lowered to 22 percent in 2014 and again to 21 percent in 2017. Preliminary estimates show that the CIT base gap declined from 37 percent since 2012 to 24 percent in 2016, and CIT collections are up by more than 1 percent of GDP. Further work on estimating the CIT base gap using a bottom up approach based on audit data is planned.

Excises. An increase in the mineral oils duty gap from 11 percent in 2010 to 27 percent in 2014, together with anecdotal reports of extensive cross-border shopping, prompted the financial administration to expand the measures on compliance risks to non-mineral oils excise tax. Excise tax collections remained broadly stable, however.

uA01fig10

Slovak Republic: VAT Effective Tax Rate

(Percent)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Source: Slovak authorities; and IMF staff estimates.
uA01fig11

Slovak Republic: Tax Base Gaps1

(Percent of potential tax base)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Source: Slovak authorities and IMF Staff estimates.1 The tax gap is the shortfall in lax revenue collected relative to the potential tax that could be collected give the theoretical base.

In 2017, the authorities launched a new action plan to be implemented through 2018 that includes the following key measures:

  • improvements in tax audits, in part through the introduction of the electronic cash desk eKASA connecting cash registers to the central register at the financial administration;

  • establishment of a Unified Analytical Center to deal with financial delinquency and prepare draft legislation to reduce tax fraud; and

  • strengthening voluntary tax compliance and improving taxpayer services by introducing electronic taxpayer customer service channels, enhancing Call Center services, and sending out pre-filled tax returns for vehicle circulation taxes for business.

Annex I. Public Debt Sustainability Analysis (DSA)

Figure 1.
Figure 1.

Public Sector Debt Sustainability Analysis (DSA)—Baseline Scenario

(Percent of GDP, unless otherwise indicated)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Source: IMF staff.1/ Public sector is defined as general government.2/ Based on available data.3/ Long-term bond spread over German bonds.4/ Defined as interest payments divided by debt stock (excluding guarantees) at the end of previous year.5/ Derived as |(r-π(1 + g) – g + ae(1+r)]/(1 + g+π+gπ)) times previous period debt ratio, with r = interest rate;π = growth rate of GDP deflator; g = real GDP growth rate; a = share of foreign-currency denominated debt; and e= nominal exchange rate depreciation (measured by increase in local currency value of U.S. dollar).6/ The real interest rate contribution is derived from the numerator in footnote 5 as r-π (1+g) and the real growth contribution as -g.7/ The exchange rate contribution is derived from the numerator in footnote 5 as ae(1+r).8/ Includes asset changes and interest revenues (if any). For projections, includes exchange rate changes during the projection period.9/ Assumes that key variables (real GDP growth, real interest rate, and other identified debt-creating flows) remain at the level of the last projection year.
Figure 2.
Figure 2.

Public DSA—Composition of Public Debt and Alternative Scenarios

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2018, 241; 10.5089/9781484370896.002.A001

Source: IMF staff.

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Cover IMF Staff Country Reports
Slovak Republic: 2018 Article IV Consultation-Press Release; Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director for the Slovak Republic
Author:
International Monetary Fund. European Dept.
Volume/Issue:
Volume 2018: Issue 241
Publisher:
International Monetary Fund
ISBN:
9781484370896
ISSN:
1934-7685
Pages:
49
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5089/9781484370896.002
  • Figure 1.
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    Figure 1.

    Slovak Republic: Output Gap and External Position

  • Figure 2.
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    Figure 2.

    Slovak Republic: Challenges to Productivity and Growth

  • Figure 3.
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    Figure 3.

    Slovak Republic: Real Sector Developments

  • Figure 4.
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    Figure 4.

    Slovak Republic: Credit Developments

  • Figure 5.
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    Figure 5.

    Slovak Republic: External Sector Competitiveness

  • View in gallery

    Output Growth and Demand Components

    (Year-on-year percent change)

  • Figure 6.
    View in gallery
    Figure 6.

    Slovak Republic: Key Labor Market Challenges

  • Figure 7.
    View in gallery
    Figure 7.

    Slovak Republic: Fiscal Deficit and Public Debt, 2015–23

  • View in gallery

    Public Infrastructure Investment Efficiency Gap

    (Coverage and Quality of Infrastructure, Compared to the Best Performer)

  • View in gallery

    Education Spending per Student

    (USD)

  • View in gallery

    Revenue by Type, 2017

    (Percent of GDP)

  • Figure 8.
    View in gallery
    Figure 8.

    Slovak Republic: Household and Private Sector Indebtedness

  • Figure 9.
    View in gallery
    Figure 9.

    Slovak Republic: Tax Subsidies for Home Ownership

  • View in gallery

    Distribution of Children Age under Three Years Old by Type of Childcare

    (Percent)

  • View in gallery

    Reasons for Not Using Formal Childcare Services

    (Percent excl. households explicitly reporting no need for such services)

  • View in gallery

    Paid Maternity and Parental Benefits

    (Weeks and percent of earnings)

  • View in gallery

    Beneficiaries of Slovakia’s Parental and Maternity Leave

    (Thousand persons)

  • View in gallery

    Attitudes towards Gender Distribution of Childcare

    (Percent)

  • View in gallery

    Slovak Republic: VAT Effective Tax Rate

    (Percent)

  • View in gallery

    Slovak Republic: Tax Base Gaps1

    (Percent of potential tax base)

  • Figure 1.
    View in gallery
    Figure 1.

    Public Sector Debt Sustainability Analysis (DSA)—Baseline Scenario

    (Percent of GDP, unless otherwise indicated)

  • Figure 2.
    View in gallery
    Figure 2.

    Public DSA—Composition of Public Debt and Alternative Scenarios

Figure 1.

Slovak Republic: Output Gap and External Position
Figure 2.

Slovak Republic: Challenges to Productivity and Growth
Figure 3.

Slovak Republic: Real Sector Developments
Figure 4.

Slovak Republic: Credit Developments
Figure 5.

Slovak Republic: External Sector Competitiveness

Output Growth and Demand Components

(Year-on-year percent change)
Figure 6.

Slovak Republic: Key Labor Market Challenges
Figure 7.

Slovak Republic: Fiscal Deficit and Public Debt, 2015–23

Public Infrastructure Investment Efficiency Gap

(Coverage and Quality of Infrastructure, Compared to the Best Performer)

Education Spending per Student

(USD)

Revenue by Type, 2017

(Percent of GDP)
Figure 8.

Slovak Republic: Household and Private Sector Indebtedness
Figure 9.

Slovak Republic: Tax Subsidies for Home Ownership

Distribution of Children Age under Three Years Old by Type of Childcare

(Percent)

Reasons for Not Using Formal Childcare Services

(Percent excl. households explicitly reporting no need for such services)

Paid Maternity and Parental Benefits

(Weeks and percent of earnings)

Beneficiaries of Slovakia’s Parental and Maternity Leave

(Thousand persons)

Attitudes towards Gender Distribution of Childcare

(Percent)

Slovak Republic: VAT Effective Tax Rate

(Percent)

Slovak Republic: Tax Base Gaps1

(Percent of potential tax base)
Figure 1.

Public Sector Debt Sustainability Analysis (DSA)—Baseline Scenario

(Percent of GDP, unless otherwise indicated)
Figure 2.

Public DSA—Composition of Public Debt and Alternative Scenarios