Bhutan
2009 Article IV Consultation-Staff Report; Staff Supplement; and Public Information Notice on the Executive Board Discussion
Author:
International Monetary Fund
Search for other papers by International Monetary Fund in
Current site
Google Scholar Close
Publication Date:
30 Dec 2009
eISBN:
9781451806281
Language:
English
Keywords:
ISCR; CR; Bhutan; real GDP; rupee; debt ratio; broad money; debt service; capital expenditure; foreign exchange; development agenda; Loans; banking system
Download PDF (634.3 KB)

This 2009 Article IV Consultation highlights that Bhutan’s fiscal policy has been anchored by keeping current spending below domestic revenue. Bhutan’s large and volatile trade deficits have been offset by sizable foreign aid flows, resulting in a balance of payments (BOP) surplus and reserve accumulation. The BOP surplus has averaged about 8 percent of GDP over the last few years. Executive Directors have commended the authorities for the strong economic performance anchored by hydropower sector development, and supported by prudent economic management, firm donor support, and political stability.

Abstract

This 2009 Article IV Consultation highlights that Bhutan’s fiscal policy has been anchored by keeping current spending below domestic revenue. Bhutan’s large and volatile trade deficits have been offset by sizable foreign aid flows, resulting in a balance of payments (BOP) surplus and reserve accumulation. The BOP surplus has averaged about 8 percent of GDP over the last few years. Executive Directors have commended the authorities for the strong economic performance anchored by hydropower sector development, and supported by prudent economic management, firm donor support, and political stability.

I. Backdrop

1. Bhutan’s historic transformation into a constitutional monarchy was successfully completed in July 2008. Elections for the upper house took place in December 2007 and elections for the 47-member lower house were held in March 2008. On July 18, 2008, the new parliament formally adopted the Constitution, completing the transition process to a parliamentary democracy.

2. Bhutan’s economic performance has been strong over the last several years. Rapid growth has been supported by prudent economic management, sustained donor support, and the smooth political transition.1 The 9th Plan (2002-2007) achieved many successes, including rising national income, significant poverty reduction, and improvements in several social indicators. As a result, Bhutan is on track to achieving its Millennium Development Goals. The 10th Plan (2008-2013) has now embarked on a wide-ranging development agenda to lower poverty through revitalizing industry, enhancing infrastructure, balancing regional development, and fostering private sector growth.2 Substantial expansion of the hydropower sector is also envisaged, with a goal of increasing electricity generation capacity by 10,000 MW by 2020.3 The challenge is to achieve these goals while sustaining Bhutan’s macroeconomic stability.

Poverty and Social Indicators

article image
Source: Various U.N. Publications

Percent of school age population

2008

2003

2006

II. Economic Developments

3. Economic growth has been robust and inflation mostly stable. During the 9th Plan, real GDP growth averaged about 9½ percent, as economic output was substantially boosted by the hydropower sector. After the spike in growth in 2006/07 and 2007/08, fuelled by the commissioning of the Tala hydropower station (Figure 1), the rate of economic expansion decelerated in 2008/09 to an estimated 5.7 percent, reflecting the high base effect and constant electricity production. Given Bhutan’s limited exposure to global financial markets and the concentration of electricity exports to India, the economic impact of the global financial crisis was small and limited to the tourism sector and a few manufacturing industries (Box 1). With strong trade ties with India, inflation has been consistent with India’s consumer price index (CPI) developments—the 9th Plan period’s average inflation rate was about 5 percent, although it increased subsequently reflecting the increase in food and fuel prices in 2008.

Figure 1.
Figure 1.

Real and External Sector Developments

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2009, 334; 10.5089/9781451806281.002.A001

Sources: IMF, International Financial Statstics; Boomberg Ltd.; and IMF staff calculations.1/ COTI refers tocountres other than India.
A01ufig02

Bhutan: Consumer Price Index

(4Q Average)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2009, 334; 10.5089/9781451806281.002.A001

A01ufig03

Bhutan: Real GDP growth around Tala’s commissioning

(in percent)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2009, 334; 10.5089/9781451806281.002.A001

4. Supported by the fiscal anchor to contain current spending below domestic revenue, the government has coped with volatility in both revenue and expenditure. Despite the uncertainty arising from foreign aid flows, a small current operating surplus (excluding grants) and an overall deficit of 2.7 percent of GDP were achieved in the 9th Plan period (Figure 2). The provisional estimates for 2008/09 also indicate an overall fiscal surplus. The 2009/10 budget, however, envisages a sharp increase in the fiscal deficit to 7.6 percent of GDP (and a significant reduction in the current operating surplus). This deterioration in the overall fiscal position relative to the provisional 2008/09 outturn reflects a sharp increase in current spending (due to the 35 percent hike in civil servants’ wages (Box 2) and higher expenditure on goods and services), a jump in capital spending, and stagnant domestic revenue.4 Thus, domestic financing is budgeted to climb to 7.1 percent of GDP, from an estimate of close to zero in 2008/09.

Figure 2.
Figure 2.

Fiscal Sector Developments

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2009, 334; 10.5089/9781451806281.002.A001

Sources: Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan; and IMF staff calculations.1/ Overall balance including grants.2/ Provsional estimate.

5. Substantial aid flows have resulted in balance of payments surpluses and foreign exchange reserves accumulation. Bhutan’s large and volatile trade deficits arising from hydropower-related imports have been offset by sizeable foreign aid inflows, leading to overall balance of payments surpluses averaging about 7 percent of GDP over the last 4 years. These surpluses have resulted in an accumulation of international reserves, which now stand at $758 million (11 months of imports of goods and services).5 However, the convertible currency versus Indian rupee composition of reserves continues to be imbalanced due to strong rupee demand from rapid credit growth, development spending, and large hydropower-related imports. As a result, out of the two rupee credit lines with India totaling Rs. 7 billion, over one half has been drawn down as of September 2009.6 External debt has declined by about 15 percentage points to 66½ percent of GDP between 2005/06 and 2008/09 following the start of debt repayment for the Tala hydropower project.

Bhutan’s Cross-country Linkages

Bhutan has extensive economic linkages with India, while trade with the rest of the world remains limited. As a small, land-locked country with only the border with India easily accessible, Bhutan naturally has much closer economic ties with India than any other country. Bhutan imports a significant fraction of consumption and investment goods from India. In combination with a dual-currency system, in which the ngultrum is pegged at par to the Indian rupee, CPI in Bhutan tracks price development in India closely. The hydropower sector—the driver of Bhutan’s strong economic growth—relies almost entirely on India for both export market and financing. Overall, India accounts for more than 90 percent of Bhutan’s exports and 75 percent of imports. While Bhutan will integrate more into the world economy, especially if WTO accession is achieved, India is likely to remain its dominant economic partner.

The central role of the hydropower sector and increasing electricity demand imply that Bhutan is largely shielded from global economic fluctuations, including those of India. Electricity exports to India are about 50 percent of Bhutan’s gross exports. The remainder are mostly re-exports and processing trade that have little value-added from Bhutan. Electricity shortage in India combined with negotiated long-term tariffs have secured a stable export market for Bhutan’s hydropower sector. It has been, therefore, possible for Bhutan’s economic growth to remain strong amid the global crisis.

Bhutan, nevertheless, has not been fully immune to the global crisis as evidenced by the tourism sector and some manufacturing industries. Tourism had experienced over 30 percent average annual growth between 2005 and 2008. By June 2009, however, the number of tourists decreased 7.3 percent and tourism receipts dropped more than 10 percent. The steel and ferroalloy industries, which take advantage of cheap energy in Bhutan and had flourished during the commodity boom, also suffered considerable losses when commodity prices tumbled. As a result, financial institutions that had extended loans to these industries incurred considerable NPLs. Fortunately, the spillover from the crisis appears to be limited to these two sectors and the impact on the overall economy remains small.

Heavy reliance on external financing makes Bhutan vulnerable to a slowdown of capital inflows. Bhutan’s hydropower projects are mostly financed by grants and loans from the Government of India. Other capital expenditures are also supported predominantly by grants from donor countries and international organizations, which have financed on average 35 percent of Bhutan’s annual budget over the last five years, especially capital expenditure. While these official inflows are generally stable and secure, Bhutan’s development agenda would be curtailed, the envisaged hydropower projects may need to be delayed, and fast economic growth could temporarily come to a halt if foreign aid falls short.

Moreover, volatile disbursements of foreign aid and lack of sufficient clarity about medium-term donor commitment also complicate Bhutan’s fiscal and monetary management. The overall fiscal balance and international reserves have experienced considerable swings, in part due to mismatch between disbursements of foreign grants and loans and actual expenditure. The absence of a clear commitment from the donor community over a 3-5 year horizon also renders it harder for the authorities to determine the resource envelope and improve the implementation of medium-term budget planning.

Wage Developments and Issues

There have been three major wage hikes for civil servants since 2005. Civil servant pay was raised by 45 percent in 2005, followed by a further average 10 percent increase in 2006, and most recently, an across-the-board 35 percent wage increase in the form of allowance effective January 1, 2009. Similar to the latest hike, the first two pay hikes also appear to have coincided with revenue cycles associated with hydropower projects—Chukha tariffs were revised in 2005 and Tala came on stream in 2006. Meanwhile, a scarcity allowance has been introduced in the remuneration of professionals and technicians on the government payroll for whom there is a deemed shortage, and the allowance was increased by 45 percent in 2007.

Past pay revisions, while significant and infrequent, were in line with economic growth and inflation. Nominal wage bill for civil servants increased by about 50 percent between 2004/05 and 2007/08, and nominal GDP grew by more than 55 percent during the same period. As a result, government expenditure on wages and salaries as a share of GDP dropped to 6.8 percent in 2007/08 from 7.2 percent in 2004/05.

The increase in 2009 may cause temporary pressures on the budget. The intent was, according to the First Pay Commission report, to attract, retain and motivate the professionals, and to continuously raise the professionalism and efficiency of the bureaucracy. Staff projects the government to spend 9.2 percent of GDP on wages and salaries in the current fiscal year, 2.1 percentage points higher than the average in the last decade, and to remain elevated as a share of GDP in the next few years.

While the average civil service wage does not appear to be very high, it is relatively high as a share of GDP and government current expenditures compared with its peer group. After the 2009 pay raise, average wage income of civil servants is estimated to be about 295 percent of GDP per capita, compared to an average of 300 percent in 11 Asian countries and 570 percent in 20 African countries reported in a World Bank survey.1 The pay and allowances of Bhutan’s corporate sector, among which most high performing companies are government-owned entities that have monopoly power, are about 15 percent higher than comparable civil service positions. However, compared to the median level of 53 low-income and lower-middle-income countries, Bhutan spent 1.4 percent of GDP more on wages and salaries during 2000-2008. The recent wage hike is projected to increase public expenditure on wages and salaries by another 1.3 percent of GDP in the next five years. But as a share of total government outlays, Bhutan spent a smaller fraction on wages and salaries compared to the same group, reflecting a large overall government spending agenda under the 9th and 10th five-year plans, much of which is capital expenditures that are aimed to improve infrastructure.

Also, Bhutan’s wage structure is overly compressed. The compression ratio of civil servant wages is at 7, far less than the normal threshold of 12, implying an overly compressed structure. A moderate income level and a compressed structure could imply underpaid high-skilled workers in the government and overpaid low-skilled workers.

Central Government Wages and Salaries

article image
Source: Government Finance Statistics database (IMF); World Economic Outlook database(IMF); and Staff calculations

Data covers 53 countries during 1991-2008, subject to availability.

1 Schiavo-Campo, S., G. de Tommaso, and A. Mukherjee (1997), An International Statistical Survey of Government Employment and Wages, Policy Research Working Paper 1806 (Washington: The World Bank).
A01ufig04

Foreign Aid

(In millions of U.S. dollars)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2009, 334; 10.5089/9781451806281.002.A001

A01ufig06

Public Debt and External Debt

(In percent of GDP)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2009, 334; 10.5089/9781451806281.002.A001

6. Measures taken by the Royal Monetary Authority (RMA) have contributed to lowering excess liquidity. The banking system’s excess liquidity is about 7.2 percent of assets—significantly lower than the 25 percent in June 2006 (Figure 3). The reduction was facilitated by the increase in the cash reserve requirement (CRR) from 13 to 18 percent during 2007/08, a hike in the RMA discount rate from 3½ to 6 percent, and an increase in the volume of RMA discount bills. New procedures for a daily sweep of the balances of government accounts in commercial banks to the RMA also lowered deposits in the banking system. Moreover, accelerated credit expansion by the bank where excess liquidity has historically resided also contributed to the reduction.

Figure 3.
Figure 3.

Monetary and Financial Developments

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2009, 334; 10.5089/9781451806281.002.A001

Sources: IMF, International Financial Statistics; Royal Monetary Authorty of Bhutan; and IMF staff calculations.
A01ufig07

Outstanding RMA Discount Bills

(In millions of ngultrum)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2009, 334; 10.5089/9781451806281.002.A001

7. With rapid credit growth, financial sector vulnerabilities are on the rise. Credit growth averaged about 30 percent over the last decade, and now there are signs of deteriorating asset quality. Banks’ non-performing loans (NPLs) more than doubled to 18 percent of total loans between December 2008 and June 2009, reflecting the impact of volatile commodity prices on select manufacturing industries.7 Moreover, credit is concentrated in personal loans, construction, trade and manufacturing.8 Banks also have maturity mismatches due to the long term-structure of these loans and the short-term corporate deposits that dominate the funding base.

III. Outlook And Risks

8. Bhutan’s growth outlook remains bright. Real GDP growth for the remainder of the 10th Plan period is projected to be about 6½ percent: the hydropower sector remains the key driver given the planned expansion in electricity generation capacity.9 In the construction phase, the projects will boost growth via the construction and services sector; once on stream, they will contribute through power generation. Inflation is expected to continue to trace India’s CPI, averaging about 6 percent for the remaining years of the 10th Plan period. As in previous hydropower cycles, the current account deficit is estimated to widen significantly over the medium term, as new hydropower projects begin; however, adequate external financing is likely to result in overall surpluses and adequate international reserve cover.

Bhutan: Summary of Medium-Term Staff Projection

article image

9. The risks to this outlook are broadly balanced. On the upside, faster private sector growth, including in the tourism sector, could result in higher productivity and growth without inflationary pressures. On the downside, however, achieving the goals of the 10th Plan is subject to potential overheating due to spillovers from the hydropower and development spending as well as rapid credit growth, financial sector vulnerabilities, and concerns about debt sustainability. The authorities agreed with the overall outlook and are mindful of these constraints. They also stressed that tourism is likely to be a strong growth sector—Bhutan lags in tourist numbers relative to its peer group, and the government is pursuing policies for its development.

Bhutan and Comparator Countries: Key Tourism Indicators in 2007

article image
Sources: UNWTO World Tourism Barometer, Jan. 2009; IMF World Economic Outlook Oct. 2009; and staff calculations

Data for the Maldives refer to 2005.

IV. Policy Discussions

10. Against this background, discussions and recommendations focused on: (i) fiscal challenges including the near-term policy stance and debt sustainability; (ii) liquidity management in the banking sector and financial sector vulnerabilities; (iii) international reserve management; and (iv) private sector development. There was broad agreement between the staff and authorities on the main policy issues and recommendations.

A. Fiscal Policy and Debt Sustainability

11. careful fiscal management with a near-term tightening bias is necessary to ensure macroeconomic stability. The budgeted fiscal deficit for 2009/10 exceeds the government’s implicit policy to limit the deficit to under 5 percent of GDP. Though staff projects that the actual outturn may be substantially lower than budgeted,10 a sharp deficit increase risks stoking excess demand given the already strong economic growth, and putting further pressure on rupee reserves. Thus, vigilance in fiscal policy and spending prioritization are critical, especially in light of the additional spending needed for reconstruction following the series of natural disasters in 2009—the estimated cost of the September earthquake alone is Nu. 2.5 billion (about 4 percent of GDP). The authorities noted that the political transition to democracy is creating spending pressures, but agreed that spending prioritization was needed given the resource constraints and their commitment to maintain a surplus on the current domestic balance. They, however, also noted their past track record of spending: only about 80 percent of their budgeted capital expenditure is typically spent because of implementation capacity constraints. This pattern is likely to continue in the near term, even though steps are being taken to ensure better budget execution.

12. In the medium term, the challenge is to limit domestic financing while pursuing the 10th Plan goals. While the anchor to contain current spending at or below domestic revenue provides important fiscal restraints, both revenue reforms and careful expenditure planning are needed to limit domestic financing to avoid potentially crowding out private investment and building-up the already high public debt. Staff recommended the following medium term fiscal stance to ensure fiscal sustainability:.

  • Measures to maintain domestic revenue at about 22 percent of GDP are desirable.11 Tax base expansion, including the introduction of a value-added tax to replace the existing sales tax, will contribute to better domestic revenue generation. Staff also stressed that tax incentives for private sector development, if necessary, need to be designed to boost growth and employment, while minimizing economic distortions and revenue losses.12

  • Keeping overall outlays (excluding net lending) at about 40 percent of GDP calls for strengthened medium-term budgeting and expenditure smoothing. This includes avoiding procyclical spending, especially on wages—civil service pay revisions in line with the overall budgetary envelope would help avoid short-term fiscal pressures arising from ad hoc adjustments. Weeding out low priority spending will also help create fiscal space for vital expenditures necessary to achieve the development goals (e.g., health, education, and infrastructure). Aligning these priorities with donor support is also needed to limit domestic financing.

  • The above revenue and outlay targets combined with foreign grants of about 13½ percent of GDP and external borrowing of 3½ percent of GDP per year, which have already been committed by foreign donors, could limit domestic financing to about 2 percent of GDP over the medium term. Such a medium term fiscal stance would prevent substantial build-up in domestic public debt and leave sufficient resources for private sector investment.

13. The authorities are keenly aware of the need to expand the revenue base and limit domestic debt. They are working on measures to broaden the sales tax base, rationalize indirect tax rates, and improve tax administration. Harmonization of personal, business and corporate income tax rates is also under consideration. On wages, however, they consider linking wage increase to specific parameters as limiting their flexibility on the timing of the pay raises. They also noted that very little domestic borrowing actually materializes in Bhutan relative to the budget due to underexecution of capital spending. However, they also agreed that this is not cause for complacency given the rising spending pressures.

14. There was agreement that stronger fiscal management requires better cash management and improved implementation of the multi-year budgetary framework. The planned issuance of T-bills will help tide over temporary cash shortfalls arising from the timing and seasonality of tax and non-tax receipts and of foreign aid disbursements. Its successful implementation, however, requires developing a cash forecasting framework based on comprehensive and high-frequency data on government’s cash inflows and outflows. Over the medium term, the multi-year budgetary framework could be enhanced by continued efforts to update and analyze in a timely manner the Budget Policy and Fiscal Framework Statement. Better donor coordination, including expanded organization capacity in the government, would also help achieve greater predictability of financial flows.

15. The debt sustainability analysis (DSA) shows that most indicative debt thresholds are breached, although several factors mitigate the risk of distress. Based on the joint IMF-World Bank DSA, the present value of public debt is projected to peak at about 130 percent of GDP in 2014/15—of which external debt is 120 percent of GDP—before resuming a steady downward path. These levels, based on Bhutan’s LIC-DSA thresholds, would indicate a high risk of debt distress. However, there are strong mitigating factors: the concentration of debt in commercially viable hydropower projects, Bhutan’s strong project implementation track record, high level of foreign reserves, and the close ties with India—its main debtor—help lower the risk to a moderate level.13 Nevertheless, under these circumstances, staff noted that a cautious and gradual approach to allowing external commercial borrowing may be necessary to avoid exacerbating the external debt situation.

B. Monetary and Financial Sector Policies

16. The RMA agreed that monetary policy consistency with the rupee peg is critical for economic stability. Staff urged adjustments to the monetary conditions to avoid an overly loose monetary stance and to ensure that interest rates are more aligned with those in India. For now, interest spreads with India are consistent with historical levels, although this comes from India’s interest rate cuts in response to the financial crisis rather than increases in the RMA’s discount bill rate. Thus, vigilance and close monitoring of monetary developments are needed, particularly if monetary stance in India shifts due to rising inflation or if there is significant pressure on Bhutan’s net foreign reserves.14

17. The authorities are taking steps to manage liquidity to strengthen monetary transmission, reduce excess liquidity, and improve financial sector resource allocation.

  • The RMA agreed with staff that stepped up issuance of RMA- or T-bills is necessary to absorb the remaining excess liquidity, and noted that the impending government T-bill issuance with market-driven interest rates will be used for that purpose.15 They also noted that as new banks enter (see below) and attract some of the deposits in the already existing banks, excess liquidity in the financial sector should decline. As for monetary policy transmission, the authorities expect the discount rate on the T-bill to be an effective signal of the policy rate and to help guide deposit rates. Moreover, the planned creation of a repo facility would facilitate moving toward market-based lending rates. Staff also urged implementing a liquidity monitoring and forecasting framework, for which better coordination with the government is needed to keep close track of cash flows.

  • The authorities also agreed that developing a formal interbank market could reduce the inefficiencies arising from the ongoing mismatch between supply and demand of funds across financial institutions and strengthen financial intermediation. The availability of T-bills for use as collateral for interbank transactions should help develop such a market and redistribute liquidity among the financial institutions.

18. Safeguarding financial sector stability is a top priority. Staff supported the imminent entry of new financial institutions—they will bring in much needed competition, improve financial intermediation and quality of services, and help develop an interbank market.16 However, there is also a risk that credit might grow even faster as banks compete, potentially compromising asset quality. With credit risk already being the biggest banking sector risk (Box 3 provides a sensitivity analysis of the two existing banks), strengthening supervision and procedures to safeguard credit quality are critical. A strong risk management process is important to identify, evaluate, monitor, and control risks from bank operations—including credit risk—and assess banks’ overall capital adequacy in the context of such risks. More efficient financial information disclosure, including the planned automation of off-site supervision would also help. Licensing for new financial institutions should include an assessment of ownership and governance. The authorities agreed that supervision had to be enhanced to ensure financial sector stability. They, however, also noted that they expect significant improvement in loan performance by year end as the extended loan grace periods terminate for the adversely affected manufacturers and loan servicing starts again. Moreover, the seasonality of NPLs in Bhutan combined with the resurgence of commodity prices would also help moderate the risk of high NPLs.

C. External sector Issues

19. The authorities agreed with the assessment that the exchange rate is broadly in equilibrium, and the ngultrum’s parity with the Indian rupee is appropriate. Given the strong economic ties with India, the peg has served Bhutan well in anchoring inflation expectations, and the real exchange rate between the two countries has fluctuated within a narrow band (Box 4). Staff advised appropriate adjustments to broader macroeconomic policies to avoid undue pressures on the exchange rate and overall reserves.

20. The frequent pressure on rupee reserves is a concern to the authorities, despite the comfortable level of convertible currency reserves. The two rupee credit lines play a useful role in addressing short-term mismatches in rupee inflows and outflows and lowering associated vulnerabilities. Even though rupee inflows are expected to rise from the hydropower projects in the pipeline, staff stressed that an appropriate macroeconomic policy stance is essential to avoid inducing discretionary rupee outflows. Diversifying exports to enhance rupee inflows beyond the hydropower sector, and close monitoring of rupee flows would also help. More generally, staff encouraged adopting clear guidelines for reserve management to actively align the currency composition of reserves with external liabilities and import demand, specify portfolio performance benchmarks, and revisit the use of 12-month import coverage as the numeraire for reserve adequacy.

21. On the plans for trade liberalization, Bhutan is at an advanced stage of the WTO accession process. The authorities informed that a decision on WTO accession could be taken in 2010. On the tariff structure, the authorities are working on rationalizing the number of slabs, which will reduce the incentives for misclassification of goods by importers.17

22. The authorities continue to be concerned about the likely outflow of convertible currency reserves if they were to accept the obligations under Article VIII, Sections 2, 3, and 4. The authorities reiterated that continued quantity restrictions on current transactions were needed since Bhutan’s international reserves were built on unpredictable aid flows rather than export receipts, and liberalization of current account transactions could quickly deplete their foreign exchange reserves as imports shift from India to third countries.18 Staff noted that as the level of foreign exchange reserves increases, the authorities could undertake gradual easing and eventually eliminate the restrictions, in line with past recommendations of IMF technical assistance in this area.

Banking Sector Sensitivity Analysis

Managing credit risks is a significant challenge. Loans account for about 50 percent of total assets in the banking system. Loan quality sharply deteriorated in 2009—NPLs have more than doubled to 17.9 percent of total loans by June 2009. Of the total NPLs, nearly 80 percent are classified as substandard. More than a quarter of the NPLs arise from the manufacturing sector largely because of the impact of lower commodity prices on a few industries (ferro-alloy and steel); tourism and construction add an additional 18 percent each.

To assess the impact of this risk, staff and the RMA ran sensitivity tests to examine their impact on key banking system soundness indicators. A stress-testing framework was applied to the two banks. Several scenarios were chosen to test for systemic weakness, including: (i) a 50 percent increase in NPLs proportional to existing (baseline) NPLs (scenario 1); (ii) a 100 percent increase in NPLs proportional to the baseline NPLs (scenario 2); (iii) 30 percent of performing loans (PLs) in the manufacturing sector turning into NPLs, and 10 percent turning to NPLs in the construction, tourism, and personal loan sectors (scenario 3); and (iv) ngultrum appreciation by 20 percent vis-à-vis the U.S. dollar (scenario 4). The baseline risk-weighted capital adequacy ratio (CAR) for the banking system at end-June 2009 was 14.5 percent.

The main results of the sensitivity analysis are:

  • Credit risk remains the main risk faced by Bhutanese banks, particularly in light of the recent surge of NPLs due to exposure to the noted manufacturing industries, fast loan growth and concentration of credit in a few sectors. The CAR could drop as much as 11 percentage points for one bank and 10.2 percentage points for the banking system as a whole under the most extreme scenario. Overall, if the NPLs continue to rise at the pace experienced since December 2008 or if the risks under the third scenario materialize, at least one bank would become undercapitalized and fall below the prudential minimum.

  • Bank 2 is more vulnerable to the credit and exchange rate risks. Its CAR could decline substantially if NPLs rise in construction and personal loans given its higher exposure to these sectors, and if the exchange rate appreciates given its larger positive net open position. Also, Bank 2 has a much lower buffer stock of capital and is thereby more vulnerable to adverse shocks.

  • Potential contagion between the banks (or in the financial sector more generally) is limited by the low level of interbank lending. However, confidence effects could spread risks from one institution to the rest of the financial system. Liquidity risks in the banking system are also low given the large role that deposits play as a funding source and the limited competition, although this could change with the entry of new banks.

A01ufig10

Bhutan: Change in Selected Banking Sector Soundness Indicators Relative to the Baseline

(In percentage points)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2009, 334; 10.5089/9781451806281.002.A001

These results are subject to caveats. The estimated decline in the CAR and increase in NPL ratio would be larger if the required provisioning on the additional NPLs is higher. On the upside, the seasonality of NPLs in Bhutan indicates that NPLs may come down quite significantly by year end and the resurgence of commodity prices may help recover some of NPLs to the steel and ferro-alloy industries. High collaterals may also alleviate losses associated with NPLs.

Exchange Rate Assessment

  • The one-to-one peg with the Indian rupee has served Bhutan well and remains appropriate. The strong link to the rupee has moderated Bhutan’s inflation, averaging just over 4 percent annually since 1999. It has also anchored confidence in the ngultrum, helping to keep interest rates relatively low, and has facilitated Bhutan’s trade relations with India.

  • While quantitative assessment is precluded by data constraints, more traditional measures indicate that the exchange rate level is broadly in equilibrium. Notwithstanding periodic rupee reserves crunches, overall international reserves remain at a comfortable level and there is no sign of either a rapid buildup or depletion of reserves. Inflation continues to closely track that of India, suggesting there is no significant pressure on the bilateral real exchange rate through price adjustments on both directions. Sizable current account deficits in the medium term are mainly due to the construction of hydropower projects that are fully financed by grants and loans from the Government of India. The external debt service payments are expected to be met with earnings from electricity exports when these projects come on stream.

  • Potential real appreciation associated with wage increases in a fast-growing economy is of a lesser concern in the case of Bhutan. The upward pressure on real wage could be muted by the fact that 23 percent of the population is still under the poverty line and 74 percent of the population remains in rural areas. Efforts to enhance private sector efficiency and to achieve productivity gains will also serve to contain inflation in the non-tradable sector.

A01ufig11

Real Exchange Rate (vis-à-vis the Indian rupee)

(Index, June 2003 = 100 + = apppreciation)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2009, 334; 10.5089/9781451806281.002.A001

A01ufig12

Power Sector Exports and Rupee Debt Service

(In billions of ngultrum)

Citation: IMF Staff Country Reports 2009, 334; 10.5089/9781451806281.002.A001

D. Employment and Private Sector Development

23. Given the expected large increase in the labor force over the next 4-5 years, the authorities recognize that private sector development is key for further job creation.19,20

  • There is a major shortage of skilled labor in Bhutan, and several measures are already underway to improve the skills and employability of the labor force. Additional measures, such as improving vocational training quality, expanding training programs, and enhancing labor market information sharing to match job seekers and employers will help promote the employment of local labor and encourage seeking employment in the private sector.

  • The financing mix available to the private sector could also be strengthened. The two commercial banks are currently the main sources of funding for the private sector. This is a constraint for some smaller businesses whose access to credit is curtailed by rigid collateral requirements and complex procedures. Financing for larger corporates, on the other hand, is limited by the single borrower prudential limits. While the small size of the banking system could be a constraining factor, the impending entry of new banks and greater competition should help improve credit access. The recent creation of the Credit Information Bureau should also help reduce information asymmetries between lenders and borrowers. Staff also encouraged greater public education on the existing credit schemes for entrepreneurial development, and further developing donor-supported SME-lending schemes. Also, taking steps to develop inter-corporate borrowing via a commercial paper market, with an adequate supporting legal framework, would help improve transparent access to funds, particularly for larger businesses, by increasing the pool of lenders. Easing restrictions on foreign direct investment, in particular relaxing the foreign exchange balancing requirement, would also help attract stable investment.21

E. Staff Appraisal

24. Anchored by hydropower sector development, Bhutan’s strong growth performance has been supported by prudent economic management, firm donor support, and political stability. The 9th Plan succeeded in lowering poverty, raising per capita income, and improving social indicators. The 10th Plan builds on these successes with a wide-ranging development agenda, including further poverty reduction through industrial, private sector, and infrastructure development. The challenge is to achieve these goals while maintaining economic and financial stability.

25. The challenges for fiscal policy are to avoid overheating pressures and ensure debt sustainability. The sharp deterioration in the budgeted 2009/10 fiscal position, combined with rapid private sector credit growth, risks fueling excess demand and pressuring rupee reserves. Thus, spending prioritization with a tightening bias is needed, especially as the reconstruction plan stemming from the recent earthquake, and its financing, solidify. Also, despite a history of low domestic financing, spending pressures on the new government are high and require an expansion in the revenue base and careful planning of expenditures. Despite breaching most LIC-DSA thresholds over the medium term, external debt is projected to return to a steady downward path after peaking in 2014/15. Given the concentration of debt in commercially viable hydropower projects, Bhutan’s strong track record of project implementation, committed donor support and its high level of foreign reserves, staffs’ assessment is that the external debt dynamics continue to be subject to a moderate risk of distress.

26. Aligning monetary policy with the peg with the Indian rupee and strengthening financial sector supervision are both necessary for economic stability. Developments in India’s interest rates and consumer prices need to be carefully monitored and Bhutan’s interest rates appropriately adjusted to avoid policy mismatches and unwarranted pressures on rupee reserves. Active liquidity management, facilitated by periodic T-bill issuance at market-driven interest rates, would aid monetary transmission. The impending entry of new financial institutions—a much needed development—should also help improve liquidity distribution. But the new banks could also trigger further credit growth which, in combination with the high NPLs and credit risks in the banking sector, requires strengthened financial sector supervision to avoid deepening financial sector vulnerabilities.

27. Adopting clear guidelines for reserve management would help improve the currency composition of reserves. While the rupee credit lines with India are helpful to overcome the periodic pressures on rupee reserves, it is also important to adopt clear reserve management guidelines that harmonize currency composition of reserves with external liabilities and import demand. Expanding non-hydropower exports to India would also help increase rupee receipts.

28. A vibrant private sector is essential for job creation. Providing employment opportunities for the projected large increase in the labor force requires developing skill sets that match the job opportunities. To reduce the dependence on the civil service as the preferred employer, an enabling environment for private sector development is essential. Improving private sector’s access to finance where needed, including through a commercial paper market for inter-corporate borrowing, would facilitate such development.

29. Staff recommends eliminating the restrictions subject to approval under Article VIII, and removing restrictions maintained under Article XIV as soon as the balance of payments position permits. Staff does not recommend approval of the restrictions subject to Fund approval under Article VIII as the authorities have not provided a timeframe for the removal of these restrictions. With the expected improvement in the convertible currency position, eliminating these restrictions should be feasible. However, given the volatile and unpredictable nature of these flows, a more gradual approach would be needed.

30. It is recommended that Bhutan remain on a 24-month Article IV consultation cycle.

Table 1.

Bhutan: Selected Economic and Financial Indicators, 2005/06-2009/10 1/

Nominal GDP (2007): US$1,253 million

Population (2007): 0.66 million

GDP per capita (2007): US$1,905

Quota: SDR 6.3 million

article image
Sources: Data provided by the Bhutanese authorities; and Fund staff estimates and projections.

Fiscal year begins July 1.

Public and publicly-guaranteed debt, including loans for hydropower projects and the purchase of one aircraft.

12-month percent change in June.

On a calendar year basis, e.g., the entry for 2007/08 is for 2007.

Table 2.

Bhutan: Government Budget Summary, 2005/06-2009/10 1/

article image
Sources: Data provided by the Royal Government of Bhutan; and Fund staff estimates and projections.

Debt service related to Tala starts in 2007/08. Tala debt disbursement is off budget, but debt service is channeled through budget.

Including revenue from Tala in 2006/07, 2007/08 and 2008/09 respectively. From 2009/10 on, when Tala becomes a corporation, its contribution appears in corporate income tax and dividends.

Including Tala’s interest payment, administrative fees and charges, sale of government property and revenue from government departments.

Including receipts from Tala for its interest payments.

Including Tala loan recovery for debt amortization of Nu. 1,395 million starting 2007/08.

including Tala loan amortization of Nu. 1,395 million starting 2007/08.

Table 3.

Bhutan: Balance of Payments, 2006/07-2013/14

article image
Sources: Data provided by the Bhutanese authorities; and Fund staff estimates and projections.

Debt service for Tala starts in 2007/08.

Including budgetary and off-budgetary grants.

Including grants for Tala, Puna I, Puna II and Mangdechu.

Including trade credit, rupee credit lines, short-term capital flows and IMF SDR allocation in 2009.

Table 4.

Bhutan: Monetary Survey, 2003/04-2008/09

article image
Sources: Data provided by the Bhutanese authorities; and Fund staff estimates.

Includes deposits of some public enterprises and off-budgetary entities; as such, data differ from bank financing data reported in the fiscal accounts.

Includes foreign exchange valuation adjustments and capital accounts.

Includes time and foreign currency deposits.

Ratio of broad money to reserve money.

Table 5.

Bhutan: Medium-Term Macroeconomic Framework, 2005/06–2013/14

article image
Sources: Data provided by the Bhutanese authorities; and Fund staff estimates and projections.

Including payment receipts from Tala for its interest payment to the government of India.

Including Tala interest payment.

Including Tala’s amortization payment.

Including grant inflows for hydropower projects.

Table 6.

Bhutan: Millennium Development Goals 1/

article image
Source: World Development Indicators database, April 2007.

In some cases the data are for earlier or later years than those stated.

Goal 1 targets: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than one dollar a day. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger.

Goal 2 targets: Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling.

Goal 3 targets: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005 and to all levels of education no later than 2015.

Goal 4 targets: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate.

Goal 5 targets: Reduce by three-quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio.

Goal 6 targets: Halt by 2015, and begin to reverse, the spread of HIV/AIDS. Halt by 2015, and begin to reverse, the incidence of malaria and other major

Goal 7 targets: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs and reverse the loss of environmental resources. Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water. By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers.

Goal 8 targets: Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading and financial system. Address the Special Needs of the Least Developed Countries. Address the Special Needs of landlocked countries and small island developing states. Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries through national and international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term. In cooperation with developing countries, develop and implement strategies for decent and productive work for youth. In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable, essential drugs in developing countries. In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications.

1

Bhutan’s development partners, including the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank, have helped Bhutan achieve its 9th Plan goals with wide-ranging lending and non-lending programs, particularly in the areas of fiscal and public financial management, infrastructure expansion, financial sector development, and overall capacity building (Informational Annexes II and III provide more details).

2

The 10th Five Year Plan was approved by the Executive Boards of the IMF and the World Bank in April 2009 as Bhutan’s Poverty Reduction Strategy paper.

3

For a detailed discussion of the impact of the hydropower sector on Bhutan’s economy, see IMF Country Reports No. 07/349 and No. 07/350.

4

The budget estimates do not include the additional spending needed for reconstruction following the series of natural disasters in 2009 (see footnote 9 and Paragraph 11).

5

Bhutan’s additional SDR allocation was entirely used to build its reserve cushion.

6

Bhutan has two rupee credit lines with India—one with State Bank of India for Rs. 4 billion at 9.2 percent interest rate, and the other with the Government of India for Rs. 3 billion at 5 percent interest rate.

7

The setting up of ferro-alloy and steel industries, which take advantage of Bhutan’s lower electricity prices, along the Indian border has raised considerably banks’ exposure to these sectors. As these industries were adversely affected by the decline in commodity prices, banks’ NPLs rose in tandem. The contribution of these industries to the whole economy, however, is small.

8

The RMA’s prudential regulations require a 30 percent ceiling on exposure to any single sector.

9

The earthquake in September 2009 disrupted the lives of many households and the price tab for reconstruction is estimated to be about 4 percent of GDP. However, given limited disruption in economic activity from the earthquake, it is unlikely to have a significant growth impact.

10

Staff projects the 2009/10 deficit to be 3.3 percent of GDP: capital spending is expected to reach 90 percent of the budgeted amount (slightly more than historical outturns); implementation capacity constraints are likely to require resource reallocation from development to earthquake-related reconstruction projects. Also, the Small Development Projects grant from India—which is pending finalization of the project list—is expected to materialize.

11

Despite tax reforms, Bhutan’s revenue-to-GDP ratio is projected to remain flat over the medium term as the increase in non-hydropower sector revenues is offset by the decline in hydropower sector-related revenues. In particular, (i) no new power sector projects are expected to come on stream over this period; (ii) both income tax and dividend payments from hydropower projects are fixed in nominal terms and thus decline as share of GDP; and (iii) other revenue—the bulk of which are receipts for making interest payments on power sector loans and fixed in nominal terms—also decrease as a percent of GDP.

12

For example, investment focused incentives such as investment tax credits or accelerated depreciation are more effective than targeted tax holidays to specific sectors.

13

Bhutan maintains close economic and political ties with India, which has been both the main provider of financing for hydropower projects and the main consumer of the electricity produced. The two countries are in a continuous dialogue on the financial and technical aspects of the projects, thus mitigating commercial risks.

14

Net foreign reserves are the gross foreign reserves minus the amount drawn from the two rupee credit lines.

15

The RMA normally issues 91-day bills. In October 2009, 30-day bills were issued on a one-time basis at a discount rate of 4.5 percent due to delays in the planned issuance of the T-bills. The monthly auctioning of the 91-day T-bills will replace the current RMA bills. A cost-sharing arrangement with the government will be introduced, whereby the latter will bear the interest cost on T-bills issued for meeting fiscal resource gaps.

16

In-principle approvals to three banks and one insurance company were made in December 2008. The latter was issued a license in August 2009; licenses for two banks are expected to be approved early next year.

17

The current tariff structure has 8 slabs ranging from 0 to 100 percent. Most imported goods are in the 5, 10 and 20 percent slabs.

18

Bhutan maintains exchange restrictions in connection with (i) the availability of foreign exchange for travel, invisibles, and private transfers; (ii) foreign exchange balancing requirements on remittances of income from FDI; and (iii) the availability of foreign exchange for importers who are not able to provide the identity of the seller. Changes to Bhutan’s import licensing rules in 2005, which introduced new foreign exchange balancing requirements for certain imports gave rise to exchange restrictions subject to Fund approval under Article VIII, Section 2(a).

19

Estimates of the labor force increase range between 70,000 and 90,000 over the next 3-5 years (the total labor force, based on the 2006 Labor Force Survey, is about 230,000).

20

The government’s draft Economic Development Policy (under discussion by Parliament) aims to create a framework for strong private sector development, including promoting entrepreneurship, generating employment, diversifying exports, and enhancing economic self-reliance.

21

The foreign exchange balancing requirement restricts the ability of foreign investors to remit profits unless the foreign exchange earnings of their investments in Bhutan more than cover their remittance amount.

Same Series

Other IMF Content

Other Publishers

  • Collapse
  • Expand
Cover IMF Staff Country Reports
Bhutan: 2009 Article IV Consultation-Staff Report; Staff Supplement; and Public Information Notice on the Executive Board Discussion
Author:
International Monetary Fund
Volume/Issue:
Volume 2009: Issue 334
Publisher:
International Monetary Fund
ISBN:
9781451806281
ISSN:
1934-7685
Pages:
58
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5089/9781451806281.002
Figure 1.

Real and External Sector Developments

Bhutan: Consumer Price Index

(4Q Average)

Bhutan: Real GDP growth around Tala’s commissioning

(in percent)
Figure 2.

Fiscal Sector Developments

Foreign Aid

(In millions of U.S. dollars)

Public Debt and External Debt

(In percent of GDP)
Figure 3.

Monetary and Financial Developments

Outstanding RMA Discount Bills

(In millions of ngultrum)

Bhutan: Change in Selected Banking Sector Soundness Indicators Relative to the Baseline

(In percentage points)

Real Exchange Rate (vis-à-vis the Indian rupee)

(Index, June 2003 = 100 + = apppreciation)

Power Sector Exports and Rupee Debt Service

(In billions of ngultrum)