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Social Science > Poverty and Homelessness

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Cover IMF Staff Country Reports
Ghana: Poverty Reduction and Growth Strategy
International Monetary Fund. African Dept.
This paper presents Ghana’s Poverty Reduction and Growth Strategy. The vision of the Agenda For Jobs II (2022–2025) is to create an optimistic, self-confident and prosperous nation, through the creative exploitation of our human and natural resources, and operating within a democratic, open and fair society in which mutual trust and economic opportunities exist for all. The Services sector continues to contribute the highest share of gross domestic product (GDP) despite its decline and varied performance of 47.9 percent in 2020, 48.2 percent in 2019 and 47.0 percent in 2018. Industry’s share of GDP decreased from 33.5 percent in 2018 to 33.2 percent in 2019 and 31.6 percent in 2020. Agriculture’s contribution to GDP increased to 20.5 percent in 2020 from 19.5 percent in 2018 and 18.5 percent in 2019. Key challenges requiring attention include the proliferation of slums due to increased rural–urban migration; poor sanitation and noise pollution; weak enforcement of environmental and mining laws and regulations leading to increased illegal mining, forest degradation and water pollution.
Keywords:
Ghana learning radio programme; infrastructure gap; value chain; Ghana export promotion authority; Ghana football association; Infrastructure; West Africa; Global; Africa
Cover Technical Assistance Reports
Costa Rica: Technical Assistance Report-Universal Basic Pension: Objectives and Constraints
International Monetary Fund. Fiscal Affairs Dept.
At the request of the Ministry of Finance, a mission from the International Monetary Fund visited San Jose. The purpose of the mission was to assess the proposal to a universal basic pension and to estimate its fiscal and welfare impact on the budget, on pension schemes, and on old age income poverty. Costa Rica is entering a demographic transition which will see the old age dependency ratios significantly worsen in the coming 20 years. The long-term financial sustainability of the general social security pension scheme (IVM) is a concern, despite various reforms introduced over the past three decades and the scheme’s reserves are expected to be exhausted by the mid-2030s. The government’s proposal intends to address financial sustainability, the adequacy of coverage and of benefit levels, as well as distributional equity through the introduction of a universal basic pension. The IMF team’s assessment is that the proposal is unlikely to fully meet its stated objectives. The proposal will worsen social security pension scheme’s financial sustainability and create additional financing needs. This will translate into an accelerated exhaustion of IVM reserves and, after the reserves are depleted, require significant adjustments to IVM parameters or higher government transfers. Old age income security may be more effectively addressed, with less pronounced fiscal side-effects, through improving coverage and compliance in IVM and expanding the reach of the social pension scheme. The primary instruments of achieving these goals are: (a) amending the rules undermining compliance with registration and wage reporting regulations in the contributory schemes, (b) improving coordination between tax and contribution collection agencies, (c) amending the regulations governing eligibility for noncontributory social pensions and (d) ensuring the noncontributory social pension is adequately financed.
Keywords:
resident representative; IMF executive director; IMF Proposal; Asociación Costarricense; PBU replacement; Pensions; Pension spending; Aging; Income; Central America
Cover Policy Papers
Macroeconomic Developments and Prospects For Low-Income Countries—2024
International Monetary Fund
and
World Bank
The outlook for Low-Income Countries (LICs) is gradually improving, but they face persistent macroeconomic vulnerabilities, including liquidity challenges due to high debt service. There is significant heterogeneity among LICs: the poorest and most fragile countries have faced deep scarring from the pandemic, while those with diversified economies and Frontier Markets are faring better. Achieving inclusive growth and building resilience are essential for LICs to converge with more advanced economies and meet the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Building resilience will also be critical in the context of a more shock-prone world. This requires both decisive domestic actions, including expanding and better targeting Social Safety Nets (SSNs), and substantial external support, including adequate financing, policy advice, capacity development and, where needed, debt relief. The Fund is further stepping up its support through targeted policy advice, capacity building, and financing.
Keywords:
Low-Income Countries; Heterogeneity; Debt vulnerability; Resilience building; Inclusive growth towards SDGs; Financing needs and external support; Social Safety Nets; poverty rate; means testing; poverty gap; aggregate poverty gap; SSNS spending; prospects in low-income countries; poverty threshold exit poverty; reform scenario; transparency policy; FAD financing tool; financial support; Poverty reduction; Household consumption; Inflation; Global; Sub-Saharan Africa
Cover Selected Issues Papers
Macroeconomic and Distributional Implications of Gender Gaps: The Gambia
Mamadou D Barry
,
Momodou Jallow
,
Glen Kwende
, and
Vivian Malta
We present the current status of labor market gender gaps in The Gambia and examine the macroeconomic and distributional gains from closing the gaps. We also study the impacts of high costs of living and the determinants of poverty. Closing labor market gender gaps, would significantly boost GDP, government revenues, women’s earnings, and reduce income inequality. High food costs adversely affect the levels of consumption in the bottom four quartiles of the income distribution. Lack of access to finance, living in rural areas, lack of employment, low levels of education, and exposure to climate shocks contribute to higher poverty levels.
Keywords:
Inflation; monetary policy rate; oil prices; food prices; fertilizer prices; exchange rates; labor market gender gaps; determinants of poverty; cost of food; women employment status; gender equality outcome; per-capita household consumption; Women; Gender inequality; Gender diversity; Consumption; Sub-Saharan Africa; Africa; Global
Cover IMF Working Papers
Inequality and Poverty in India: Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic and Policy Response
Ms. Elif C Arbatli Saxegaard
,
Mattia Coppo
,
Nasser Khalil
,
Shinya Kotera
, and
Ms. Filiz D Unsal
Using microdata from nationally representative household and labor force surveys, we study the impact and drivers of poverty and inequality in India during the pandemic. We have three main findings. First, India has made significant progress in reducing poverty in recent decades, but the economic downturn associated with the COVID-19 pandemic is estimated to have temporarily increased poverty and inequality. Second, education and employment status seem to be the main factors associated with poverty and income/consumption changes. Finally, the government’s expansion of food subsidies has likely played a significant role in mitigating the increase in poverty during the pandemic.
Keywords:
COVID-19; poverty; inequality; earnings; India; employment status; CPHS datum; poverty in India; consumption inequality; inequality in India; Annex II; Income; Income inequality; Consumption; Global; South Asia
Cover IMF Working Papers
Rising Child Poverty in Europe: Mitigating the Scarring from the COVID-19 Pandemic
Mr. Jean-Jacques Hallaert
,
Iglika Vassileva
, and
Tingyun Chen
Child poverty increased dramatically during the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2020 alone, the number of children suffering from poverty in the EU increased by 19 percent, or close to 1 million. Left unaddressed, this would not only affect individuals’ life prospects and well-being but also have long-term economic implications. This paper argues that, to limit this potential scarring effect of the pandemic, policies should be deployed to reduce rapidly the number of children affected by poverty and mitigate the long-term impact of poverty. Reducing the number of children affected by poverty can be achieved by (i) labor policies and reforms that increase parental work and the labor income of poor parents and (ii) fiscal spending on family and children that can have a powerful and immediate impact. These policies need to be complemented by public investment in education and childcare, health, and housing to mitigate the long-term impact of child poverty.
Keywords:
child poverty; EU assistance; scarring effect; C. measuring poverty; summary plot; labor income; COVID-19; Income; Poverty reduction; Social protection spending; Europe
Cover Selected Issues Papers
Options to Strengthen the Social Safety Net in Japan: Japan
Zhiyong An
and
Kohei Asao
Japan’s unemployment rate remains relatively low compared to other OECD countries. However, Japan’s poverty rate among the working-age population is one of the higher ones among OECD countries. The public assistance program in Japan does not provide adequate income support for the working poor and creates inherent work disincentives. In this context, the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) warrants consideration to strengthen the social safety net and relieve poverty of the working poor in Japan. This paper provides an overview of the theoretical and practical issues of EITC, aiming to support its potential introduction in Japan.
Keywords:
Social safety net; working poor; inequality; public assistance; in-work benefits; Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC); Japan; program in Japan; public assistance program; Japan's poverty rate; Japan's unemployment rate; EITC program; Income; Wages; Employment; Social assistance spending; Income tax systems
Cover IMF Staff Country Reports
Republic of Congo: Poverty Reduction and Growth Strategy
International Monetary Fund. African Dept.
This paper on Republic of Congo focuses on poverty reduction and growth strategy. The diagnostic analysis of the socio-economic situation shows that the Congo still faces many challenges. It is recommended to strengthen the quality, capacities, and efficiency of the system, and manage human resources rationally and efficiently in all their components. Focus the national development plan’s (NDP) actions on the economy to make it stronger, and thus give the State more consistent means of action to meet the main national challenges. The implementation of the six strategic pillars of the NDP mentioned above should enable the State to have the necessary resources for the development of education, health, social protection, and basic social services infrastructure. The impact of this involvement is based on a correlation between the expected effects on the social dividend and the actual achievement of the targets for each Sustainable Development Goal.
Keywords:
poverty rate; NDP financing plan; NDP scenario; NDP project; NDP objective; Infrastructure; Global; Central Africa; Africa; Sub-Saharan Africa
Cover Technical Notes and Manuals
IMF Engagement on Social Safety Net Issues in Surveillance and Program Work
International Monetary Fund. Fiscal Affairs Dept.
and
International Monetary Fund. Strategy, Policy, & Review Department
The International Monetary Fund’s engagement on social safety net (SSN) issues is likely to expand as member countries respond to growing challenges in the economic and fiscal landscape. SSNs play a crucial role in protecting households from poverty, promoting inclusive growth, and maintaining social stability. This technical note discusses (1) the different channels through which SSN spending may become macro-critical, (2) how to assess the importance of these channels, and (3) the types of policy responses that are appropriate and the trade-offs involved in choosing among them. To facilitate a more comprehensive assessment of SSN spending, the paper also examines the complementary role of labor market programs (for example, unemployment benefits and active labor market programs). The paper emphasizes the importance of early engagement and coordination with development partners with expertise on social safety nets and with different stakeholders when formulating policy advice.
Keywords:
Fiscal Policy; Social Protection; Social Safety Nets; Spending adequacy; Spending Efficiency; Fiscal Sustainability; SSN spending; labor market program; benefit incidence; SSN program; Benefit-cost ratio; Social assistance spending; Income; Labor markets; Poverty reduction; Sub-Saharan Africa; Global
Cover IMF Working Papers
Pandemic, Poverty, and Inequality: Evidence from India
Surjit Bhalla
,
Karan Bhasin
, and
Mr. Arvind Virmani
The paper presents estimates of poverty [extreme poverty PPP$1.9 and PPP$3.2] and consumption inequality in India for each of the years 2004-5 through the pandemic year 2020-21. These estimates include, for the first time, the effect of in-kind food subsides on poverty and inequality. Extreme poverty was as low as 0.8 percent in the pre-pandemic year 2019, and food transfers were instrumental in ensuring that it remained at that low level in pandemic year 2020. Post-food subsidy inequality at .294 is now very close to its lowest level 0.284 observed in 1993/94.
Keywords:
Poverty Measurement; Pandemic; food transfer; consumption inequality; consumption expenditure; poverty PPP; estimates of poverty; Consumption; Income inequality; Agricultural commodities; Household consumption; Global