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Business and Economics > Corporate Taxation

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Cover Selected Issues Papers
Drivers of Corporate Cash Holdings in Japan: Japan
Seho Kim
,
Pablo Lopez Murphy
, and
Rui Xu
In Japan, corporate savings have risen since 2000 in line with profits. A large share of the additional savings was kept as cash holdings (i.e., cash and short-term investments) rather than used for investment. Building on a rich literature, this paper identifies two additional drivers of corporate cash holdings using financial data of public and private Japanese firms. First, a higher share of intangible capital is associated with more cash holdings. This indicates the presence of financial frictions as intangible capital is not easily collateralizable. Such financial friction could be alleviated by shifting towards cash flow-based lending that is prevalent in the United States (US). Second, corporate tax cuts are associated with more cash holdings while having no significant effect on investment. Given the significant fiscal cost, the efficiency of corporate tax cuts should be re-evaluated.
Keywords:
Corporate cash holdings; Investment; intangible assets; financial frictions; tax cuts; Japan; cash holding; corporate tax tax cut; drivers of Corporate Cash Holdings; firm sample; short-term investment; Intangible capital; Corporate income tax; Effective tax rate; Tax allowances; Global
Cover IMF Working Papers
The Fiscal State-Dependent Effects of Capital Income Tax Cuts
Alexandra Fotiou
,
Ms. Wenyi Shen
, and
Susan Yang Shu-Chun
Using the post-WWII data of U.S. federal corporate income tax changes, within a Smooth Transition VAR, this paper finds that the output effect of capital income tax cuts is government debt-dependent: it is less expansionary when debt is high than when it is low. To explore the mechanisms that can drive this fiscal state-dependent tax effect, the paper uses a DSGE model with regime-switching fiscal policy and finds that a capital income tax cut is stimulative to the extent that it is unlikely to result in a future fiscal adjustment. As government debt increases to a sufficiently high level, the probability of future fiscal adjustments starts rising, and the expansionary effects of a capital income tax cut can diminish substantially, whether the expected adjustments are through a policy reversal or a consumption tax increase. Also, a capital income tax cut need not always have large revenue feedback effects as suggested in the literature.
Keywords:
WP; debt ratio; capital income tax effects; tax multiplier; fiscal policy effects; regime-switching models; non-linear DSGE model; income tax tax cut; income tax tax rate; cut effect; fiscal policy; rate data; tax revenue; capital income tax effect; cut increases government debt; output multiplier; Capital income tax; Fiscal consolidation; Corporate income tax; Consumption taxes
Cover IMF Working Papers
VAT Notches, Voluntary Registration, and Bunching: Theory and UK Evidence
Ms. Li Liu
,
Mr. Ben Lockwood
,
Miguel Almunia
, and
Eddy H.F. Tam
Using administrative tax records for UK businesses, we document both bunching in annual turnover below the VAT registration threshold and persistent voluntary registration by almost half of the firms below the threshold. We develop a conceptual framework that can simultaneously explain these two apparently conflicting facts. The framework also predicts that higher intermediate input shares, lower product-market competition and a lower share of business to consumer (B2C) sales lead to voluntary registration. The predictions are exactly the opposite for bunching. We test the theory using linked VAT and corporation tax records from 2004-2014, finding empirical support for these predictions.
Keywords:
WP; unit cost; standard deviation; Value‐Added Tax (VAT); Voluntary Registration; Bunching; year dummy; input cost ratio; account database; responses to notch; turnover net; Value-added tax; VAT registration thresholds; Compliance costs; Competition; Corporate income tax; value-added tax system; VAT threshold; H.F. tam; system in the UK
Cover IMF Working Papers
The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act: An Appraisal
Mr. Nigel A Chalk
,
Mr. Michael Keen
, and
Ms. Victoria J Perry
This paper assesses the landmark Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA), from the perspective of both the U.S. itself and the wider world. The reform has many positive aspects including steps to broaden the base of, and reduce marginal rates under, the personal income tax (PIT), reduce distortions to investment and financing decisions, and mitigate outward profit shifting. But the TCJA has a large fiscal price tag and leaves significant uncertainty as to how the U.S. tax system will develop. The PIT changes could have better targeted relief at low earners, and there is scope to more fully address distortions in business taxation. The novel international provisions create a complex array of both positive and negative international spillovers, and have the potential to significantly reshape the wider international tax system.
Keywords:
WP; income tax; tax revenue; tax system; tax liability; taxable income; Tax Policy; Business Tax; Personal Income Tax; International Taxation; Pass-throughs; standard deduction; GILTI income; net effect; rate of return; cash flow; multinational company; business income; U.S corporation; GILTI provision; intangible income; Personal income; Corporate income tax; Income tax systems; Income and capital gains taxes; Global
Cover IMF Working Papers
International Corporate Tax Avoidance: A Review of the Channels, Magnitudes, and Blind Spots
Sebastian Beer
,
Ruud A. de Mooij
, and
Ms. Li Liu
This paper reviews the rapidly growing empirical literature on international tax avoidance by multinational corporations. It surveys evidence on main channels of corporate tax avoidance including transfer mispricing, international debt shifting, treaty shopping, tax deferral and corporate inversions. Moreover, it performs a meta analysis of the extensive literature that estimates the overall size of profit shifting. We find that the literature suggests that, on average, a 1 percentage-point lower corporate tax rate will expand before-tax income by 1 percent—an effect that is larger than reported as the consensus estimate in previous surveys and tends to be increasing over time. The literature on tax avoidance still has several unresolved puzzles and blind spots that require further research.
Keywords:
WP; tax rate; passive income; dependent variable; Corporate taxation; Multinationals; Profit shifting; International tax avoidance; Meta analysis; host-country tax; company debt; residence country; firm FE; consensus estimate; debt shifting; profit reallocation; elasticity estimate; company transaction; single tax; Corporate income tax; Tax avoidance; Corporate taxes; Personal income; Global
Cover IMF Working Papers
Tax Policy Measures in Advanced and Emerging Economies: A Novel Database
Mr. David Amaglobeli
,
Mr. Valerio Crispolti
,
Ms. Era Dabla-Norris
,
Pooja Karnane
, and
Florian Misch
This paper describes a new, comprehensive database of tax policy measures in 23 advanced and emerging market economies over the last four decades. We extract this information from more than 900 OECD Economic Surveys and 37,000 tax-related news from the International Bureau of Fiscal Documentation using text-mining techniques. The innovation of this dataset lies in its granularity: changes in the rates and bases of personal and corporate income taxes, value added and sale taxes, social security contributions, excise, and property taxes are systematically documented. In addition, the database provides information on the announcement and implementation dates, whether the measures represent major changes, are part of a broader tax package, and phased in over several years. The paper also presents a range of stylized facts suggesting that information from this database is useful to deepen the analysis of tax policy changes for research and policy purposes.
Keywords:
WP; tax; VAT; CIT; PIT; tax measure; Tax Reforms; Text Mining; Tax Policy; Implementation Lags; Political Economy; tax package; reform package; major tax; rate change; VAT measure; Corporate income tax; Personal income tax; Tax type organization; Value-added tax; Social security contributions; Global
Cover Policy Papers
Spillovers in International Corporate Taxation
International Monetary Fund
This paper explores the nature, significance and policy implications of spillovers in international corporate taxation—the effects of one country’s rules and practices on others. It complements current initiatives focused on tax avoidance by multinationals, notably the G20-OECD project on Base Erosion and Profit shifting (BEPS). The paper draws on the IMF’s experience on international tax issues with its wide membership, including through technical assistance (TA), and on its previous analytical work, to analyze spillovers and how they might be addressed. In doing so, it goes beyond current initiatives to look at a wide set of possible responses.
Keywords:
PP; double taxation; residence country; tax system; single tax; taxable income; transfer pricing; withholding tax; income tax; cost of capital; companies resident; capital gain; Intra-company debt shifting; Corporate income tax; Corporate taxes; Spillovers; Personal income; Transfer pricing; Global
Cover IMF Working Papers
Japan’s Corporate Income Tax: Facts, Issues and Reform Options
Ruud A. de Mooij
and
Ikuo Saito
This paper explores how corporate income tax reform can help Japan increase investment and boost potential growth. Using international and Japan-specific empirical estimates of corporate tax elasticities, investment is predicted to expand by around 0.4 percent for each point of rate reduction. International consensus estimates suggest further that between 10 and 30 percent of the static revenue loss could be recovered in the long run through dynamic scoring, although Japan’s offset may be closer to the lower bound. Compensating fiscal measures are necessary in light of Japan’s tight fiscal constraints. The scope for base broadening in the corporate income tax is found to be limited and some forms of base broadening will undo positive investment effects of a rate cut. Alternative revenue sources include higher consumption and property taxes. A gradual approach toward lowering tax rates mitigates windfall gains and reduces short-run revenue costs. An incremental allowance-for-corporate-equity system could boost investment with limited fiscal costs in the short run.
Keywords:
WP; CIT rate; rate reduction; tax burden; cost of capital; taxable income; Corporate income tax; Japan; Tax distortions; Investment; Dynamic scoring; CIT reform; reform option; revenue-to-GDP ratio; CIT base; revenue loss; reduction in Japan; enterprise tax; rate change; rate of return; Income; Personal income tax; Allowance for corporate equity; Consumption taxes; Europe
Cover IMF Staff Country Reports
Japan: Staff Report for the 2014 Article IV Consultation
International Monetary Fund. Asia and Pacific Dept
KEY ISSUES Abenomics is gaining traction, but progress across the three arrows has been uneven and medium-term risks remain substantial. Inflation has risen, a consumption tax increase has been implemented, and there are signs of a transition to private-led growth. However, structural reforms have progressed slowly and a medium-term fiscal plan beyond 2015 is still to be articulated. Uncertainty is therefore high whether the recovery and exit from deflation will become self sustained under current policies. More forceful growth reforms are needed to overcome structural headwinds to raising growth and ending deflation The next round of structural reforms should lift labor supply, reduce labor market duality, enhance risk capital provision, and accelerate agricultural and services sector deregulation. Corporate governance reforms already underway could help reduce firms’ preference for large cash holdings. A concrete medium-term fiscal reform plan is urgently needed. Given very high levels of public debt, implementation of the second consumption tax increase is critical to establish a track record of fiscal discipline. Adoption of a concrete medium-term fiscal consolidation plan beyond 2015 would build confidence in the sustainability of public finances and allow more flexibility to respond to downside risks. Plans to lower the corporate tax rate have growth benefits, but should proceed in combination with measures to offset revenue losses and be consistent with plans to restore fiscal sustainability. Monetary policy is appropriately accommodative. With inflation and inflation expectations increasing, no further easing is needed at this point. In case downside risks to the inflation outlook materialize, the Bank of Japan (BoJ) should act swiftly through further and/or longer- dated asset purchases. Communication should focus on achieving 2 percent inflation in a stable manner aided by a more transparent presentation of the BoJ’s forecast and underlying assumptions. The financial sector remains stable. Portfolio rebalancing by financial institutions and investors is desirable but also raises new risks, including from greater overseas engagement. In regional banks, limited growth opportunities and low net interest margins could further undermine core profitability and weaken capital buffers. Supervisors should continue to be proactive in monitoring these risks. Japan’s external position is assessed as broadly in balance—compared to moderately undervalued last year—because of structural changes in the external sector, including from the offshoring of production and sustained high energy imports, which have become more apparent. Launching all three arrows will create benefits for the region and the global economy. Spillovers via the trade channel and capital flows are expected to increase in coming years with uncertain net effects—higher exports and capital outflows—in the short term. As long as Japan continues to proceed with its reforms, incomes will rise and fiscal risks decline, which will be positive for the global economy.
Keywords:
ISCR; CR; consumption tax increase; financial market indicator; JGB yield; consumption index; policy issue; budgetary funds; Consumption taxes; Inflation; Corporate income tax; Global; Asia and Pacific
Cover IMF Working Papers
Territorial vs. Worldwide Corporate Taxation: Implications for Developing Countries
Ms. Thornton Matheson
,
Ms. Victoria J Perry
, and
Mr. Chandara Veung
Global investment patterns mean that effective taxation of foreign investors is of increasing importance to the economies of lower income countries. It is thus of considerable concern that the historical framework for cross-border income tax arrangements is not always well suited to allow low-income countries (LICs) effectively to generate tax revenues from profits on foreign direct investment (FDI). Several aspects of this framework contribute to the problem. This paper discusses, in particular, the likely effect of a shift by major economies from the system of worldwide corporate taxation toward a territorial system on the volume, distribution, and financing of FDI, focusing on LICs. It then empirically analyzes bilateral outbound FDI data for the UK for 2002–10 to determine whether the move to territoriality made corporations more sensitive to hostcountry statutory tax rates. Supporting evidence for this hypothesis is found for FDI financed from new equity.
Keywords:
WP; tax rate; CIT; rate; CIT rate; international corporate income tax; international taxation; worldwide taxation; territorial taxation; foreign direct investment in developing countries; host country rate; FDI flow; unweighted OECD CIT average; territoriality dummy; investing country; OECD country; equilibrium rate; country shift; CIT reduction; income effect; high-CIT rate; Corporate income tax; Foreign direct investment; Wages; Income; Withholding tax; Global