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Business and Economics > Banks and Banking

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Cover FinTech Notes
Private Law Aspects of Token-Based Central Bank Digital Currencies
Marianne Bechara
,
Wouter Bossu
,
Amira Rasekh
,
Chia Yi Tan
, and
Akihiro Yoshinaga
In designing central bank digital currencies (CBDCs), it is imperative that central banks carefully consider its legal foundations. As with any form of money, CBDCs require a solid basis under public and private law to provide it with the necessary legal certainty and political support that will underpin its wide circulation. This Fintech Note examines the private law aspects of token-based CBDC primarily intended for retail use. It follows a previous IMF working paper that examines the legal foundations of CBDC under central bank law and its treatment under monetary law—the main public law aspects of CBDC.
Keywords:
Token-Based CBDC; Private Law; Central Bank Digital Currencies; Legal Framework; Ownership Rights; Transfer Mechanisms; Financial Intermediaries; private law aspect; TokenBased central bank digital currencies; CBDC holder; IMF Library; IMF Fintech Note 2025/003; Currencies; Securities; Commercial banks; Global
Cover IMF Working Papers
Quarterly Projection Model for the Bank of Ghana: Extensions and Applications
Philip Abradu-Otoo
,
Joseph K. Acquah
,
James Attuquaye
,
Simon Harvey
,
Francis Loloh
,
Shalva Mkhatrishvili
,
Valeriu Nalban
,
Daniel Ngoh
,
Victor Osei
, and
Michael Quansah
The paper documents the latest extensions of the Bank of Ghana’s Quarterly Projection Model (QPM), used regularly to produce policy analysis and forecasts in support of the Bank’s policy processes. The decomposition of GDP allows to separate the agriculture and oil sectors, driven by exogenous and international developments, from non-agriculture non-oil activities, which are more relevant from the central bank’s perspective of assessing the business cycle position. Inter-sectoral price spillovers and their role in the formation of inflation expectations are explicitly accounted, with important policy implications. Specific model applications – including impulse response functions and simulations of shocks that affect agricultural production, e.g., those caused by climate disruptions; and counterfactual simulations to evaluate recent policy choices – highlight the usefulness of the extended QPM in providing a more detailed account of the economic developments, enhance forecast coverage, and broaden its underlying narrative, thus strengthening the BOG’s forward-looking policy framework.
Keywords:
Ghana; Forecasting and Policy Analysis; Quarterly Projection Model; Monetary Policy; Transmission Mechanism; A. impulse response; impulse response function; reaction function; policy analysis; Bank of Ghana's Quarterly Projection Model; price spillover; Inflation; Output gap; Inflation targeting; Real interest rates; Global
Cover IMF Working Papers
Managing Foreign Exchange Rate Risk: Capacity Development for Public Debt Managers in Emerging Market and Low-Income Countries
Thordur Jonasson
,
Sheheryar Malik
,
Kay Chung
, and
Michael G. Papaioannou
This paper presents some sound practices for foreign-currency risk management in developing countries and outlines instruments for managing sovereign debt portfolio currency exposures. Adoption of a debt management strategy with well-defined targets for foreign exchange risk is a critical element of public debt risk management. To this end, public debt managers often need to face with complex strategic and operational matters related to public debt hedging practices, including the use of derivatives. In this context, we highlight the main institutional challenges in the management of foreign exchange risk in sovereign debt portfolios and discuss the overall implementation of a foreign exchange risk-management strategy.
Keywords:
exchange rate risk risk management; debt portfolio; public debt manager; currency exposure; risk-management strategy; Government debt management; Debt management; Currencies; Exchange rate risk; Foreign currency debt; Asia and Pacific; Sub-Saharan Africa; Middle East; North Africa; Central Asia; Africa
Cover IMF Working Papers
E-Money and Monetary Policy Transmission
Zixuan Huang
,
Amina Lahreche
,
Mika Saito
, and
Ursula Wiriadinata
E-money development has important yet theoretically ambiguous consequences for monetary policy transmission, because nonbank deposit-taking e-money issuers (EMIs) (e.g., mobile network operators) can either complement or substitute banks. Case studies of e-money regulations point to complementarity of EMIs with banks, implying that the development of e-money could deepen financial intermediation and strengthen monetary policy transmission. The issue is further explored with panel data, on both monthly (covering 21 countries) and annual (covering 47 countries) frequencies, over 2001 to 2019. We use a two-way fixed effect estimator to estimate the causal effects of e-money development on monetary policy transmission. We find that e-money development has accompanied stronger monetary policy transmission (measured by the responsiveness of interest rates to the policy rate), growth in bank deposits and credit, and efficiency gains in financial intermediation (measured by the lending-to-deposit rate spread). Evidence is more pronounced in countries where e-money development takes off in a context of limited financial inclusion. This paper highlights the potential benefits of e-money development in strengthening monetary policy transmission, especially in countries with limited financial inclusion.
Keywords:
Monetary policy transmission; banks; nonbank financial institutions; e-money; panel data; e-money development; e-money issuer; e-money intensity; E-Money intensity; Financial inclusion; Central bank policy rate; Deposit rates; Bank credit; Sub-Saharan Africa; Africa
Cover IMF Working Papers
Sub-Saharan Africa’s Risk Perception Premium: In the Search of Missing Factors
William Gbohoui
,
Rasmané Ouedraogo
, and
Yirbehogre Modeste Some
Policymakers from the sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) region often flag a mispricing of their sovereign debt presumably originating from a perception risk by international investors that lead to "unjustifiably" high borrowing costs. Against this background, this paper explores the extent to which a potential SSA premium exists in the financial markets following a broader two-fold approach. Firstly, using a sample of 1592 international primary sovereign fixed coupon bonds issued between 2003-2021 from Bond Radar by 89 countries, we find that SSA countries pay significantly higher coupon at issuance compared to their peers from other regions. Secondly, we assess whether there is any bias against SSA countries in the secondary market that would result in higher refinancing cost. Based on an unbalanced panel of quarterly data covering 107 countries over 1990 – 2022, we find that SSA countries pay higher refinancing costs in the secondary market. The paper further explores whether there are other factors overlooked by the literature that matter for the risk pricing by international investors. In that respect, we explore the sensitivity of spreads to some structural dimensions where SSA countries face acute challenges―the transparency of budget process, the importance of the informal sector, the level of financial development, and the quality of public institutions. The results show that the excess premium estimated for SSA countries vanishes when these structural factors are accounted for in the regressions.
Keywords:
perception premium; SSA country; policymakers from the sub-Saharan Africa; SSA premium; IMF WP 23/130; c. robustness; Return on investment; Sovereign bonds; Yield curve; Bonds; Sub-Saharan Africa; Global; Africa
Cover IMF Working Papers
Quarterly Projection Model for the Bank of Ghana
Philip Abradu-Otoo
,
Ivy Acquaye
,
Abubakar Addy
,
Nana Kwame Akosah
,
James Attuquaye
,
Simon Harvey
,
Shalva Mkhatrishvili
,
Zakari Mumuni
, and
Valeriu Nalban
The paper describes the Quarterly Projection Model (QPM) that underlies the Bank of Ghana Forecasting and Policy Analysis System (FPAS). The New Keynesian semi-structural model incorporates the main features of the Ghanaian economy, transmission channels and policy framework, including an inflation targeting central bank and aggregate demand effects of fiscal policy. The shock propagation mechanisms embedded in the calibrated QPM demonstrate its theoretical consistency, while out-of-sample forecasting accuracy validates its empirical robustness. Another important part of the QPM is endogenous policy credibility, which may aggravate policy trade-offs in the model and make it more realistic for developing economies. Historical track record of real time policy analysis and medium-term forecasting conducted with the QPM – as a component of the broader FPAS analytical organization – establishes its critical role in supporting the Bank’s forward-looking monetary policy framework.
Keywords:
Ghana; Forecasting and Policy Analysis; Quarterly Projection Model; Monetary Policy; Transmission Mechanism; out-of-sample forecasting accuracy; D. monetary policy credibility channel; projection model; impulse response; policy analysis; Inflation; Output gap; Inflation targeting; Exchange rates; Central bank policy rate; Global
Cover IMF Staff Country Reports
Ghana: Request for Disbursement Under the Rapid Credit Facility-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Ghana
International Monetary Fund. African Dept.
This paper discusses Ghana’s Request for Disbursement Under the Rapid Credit Facility (RCF). Growth is slowing down, financial conditions have tightened, and the exchange rate is under pressure. This has resulted in large government and external financing needs. The authorities have timely and proactively responded to contain the spread of the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic in Ghana and support affected households and firms. The IMF continues to monitor Ghana’s situation closely and stands ready to provide policy advice and further support as needed. The uncertain dynamics of the pandemic creates significant risks to the macroeconomic outlook. Ghana continues to be classified at high risk of debt distress. The authorities remain committed to policies consistent with strong growth, rapid poverty reduction, and macroeconomic stability over the medium term. Additional support from other development partners will be required and critical to close the remaining external financing gap and ease budget constraints.
Keywords:
ISCR; CR; financing; Ghana; government financing Needs; government; government financing; financing gap; Ghanaian authorities; Ghana's situation; authorities' effort; financing needs; COVID-19; Energy sector; International reserves; Financial sector; Credit; Global
Cover IMF Staff Country Reports
Ghana: Selected Issues Paper
International Monetary Fund. African Dept.
This Selected Issues paper discusses growth strategy for Ghana. Ghana has achieved impressive development gains over the last decades, with rising incomes, lower poverty, and better health, education, and gender outcomes. However, growth has recently become less inclusive, with high inequality and slower poverty reduction. In order to address these challenges, the authorities are pursuing a “Ghana beyond Aid” development strategy centered around agricultural modernization and export-led industrialization. Accelerating productivity growth calls for fostering competition, improving the business environment, strengthening human capital, taking advantage of growing regional markets and industrial policies that prioritize sectors that can export and innovate and where Ghana could achieve economies of scale. Consistent and predictable government policies can help increase long-term investment and improve public spending effectiveness. A key lesson from growth accelerations in other countries is that it is crucial to achieve economies of scale. In most cases, rapid economic growth required achieving export success in specific sectors.
Keywords:
ISCR; CR; Ghana; asset; bank; industry; liability; per capita income; public sector; bank intermediation cost; structural change; gas assets; banking system; extractive industry; processing industries in Ghana; value chain; exposure to the commodity cycle; government balance sheet; bank profitability; Financial statements; Public sector; Commercial banks; Business enterprises; Nonperforming loans; Sub-Saharan Africa; Africa
Cover IMF Staff Country Reports
Cote d'Ivoire: Sixth Reviews Under the Arrangement Under the Extended Credit Facility and the Extended Arrangement Under the Extended Fund Facility, and Request for Extension and Augmentation of Access; Press Release; Staff Report; Staff Supplement; and Statement by the Executive Director for the Cote d’Ivoire
International Monetary Fund. African Dept.
This paper discusses Cote d’Ivoire’s Sixth Review Under the Arrangement of the Extended Credit Facility and the Extended Arrangement Under the Extended Fund Facility, and Request for Extension and Augmentation of Access. Côte d’Ivoire has been pursuing a development-oriented policy agenda, and the IMF-supported program in place since 2016 has supported that focus, paving the way for the private sector to become the main driver of growth. The performance under the program has been strong. The medium-term growth prospects remain robust, predicated on continuing prudent macroeconomic policy, furthering financial sector reforms and sustaining structural reforms to bolster private sector-led inclusive growth. Côte d’Ivoire’s reform efforts have resulted in improvements in its business climate in recent years. It will be imperative to continue the reform agenda to further stimulate private sector activity and support inclusive growth, including by improving the energy sector, human capital and financial inclusion, accelerating digitalization, enhancing trade connectivity and governance, expanding the coverage of social safety nets, and reinforcing the statistical apparatus to help better inform economic policy.
Keywords:
ISCR; CR; summary debt service table; debt; authority; reform agenda; summary table; Ivorian authority; EFF arrangement; Debt sustainability; Stress testing; Global; West Africa
Cover IMF Staff Country Reports
Ghana: Seventh and Eighth Reviews Under the Extended Credit Facility Arrangement and Request for Waivers of Nonobservance of Performance Criteria-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Ghana
International Monetary Fund. African Dept.
This paper discusses Ghana’s Seventh and Eighth Reviews Under the Extended Credit Facility Arrangement and Request for a Waiver of Nonobservance of Performance Criterion (PC). Ghana’s macroeconomic performance has significantly improved in the last two years under the ECF-supported program. The elevated debt burden and fiscal risks from the financial and energy sectors limit policy space. The large loss of foreign exchange reserves in 2018 is a pointed reminder of Ghana’s exposure to shifting investors’ sentiment and external shocks, amplified by the government’s still elevated financing needs. Ghana’s legacy of political budget cycles will test the authorities’ commitment to macroeconomic discipline and reform in 2020—a challenge that the authorities intend to face head on. Corrective measures have been put in place to address the PCs missed at end-June (three) and end-December (two) and the continuous PC on credit to the government by the Bank of Ghana.
Keywords:
ISCR; CR; FX management policy; supplementary information; revenue monetization; request; debt collateralization; parliament regulation; nonobservance of performance criteria; Financial sector; Fiscal stance; Fiscal risks; Global; West Africa; Sub-Saharan Africa