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Business and Economics > Banks and Banking

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Cover IMF Working Papers
Watch What They Do, Not What They Say: Estimating Regulatory Costs from Revealed Preferences
Adrien Alvero
,
Mr. Sakai Ando
, and
Kairong Xiao
We show that distortion in the size distribution of banks around regulatory thresholds can be used to identify costs of bank regulation. We build a structural model in which banks can strategically bunch their assets below regulatory thresholds to avoid regulations. The resulting distortion in the size distribution of banks reveals the magnitude of regulatory costs. Using U.S. bank data, we estimate the regulatory costs imposed by the Dodd-Frank Act. Although the estimated regulatory costs are substantial, they are significatnly lower than those in self-reported estimates by banks.
Keywords:
Bank regulation; regulatory costs; the Dodd-Frank Act; bunching; regulatory cost; size distribution; bank data; costs from revealed preference; bank value; Bank regulation; Productivity; Shadow banking; Total factor productivity; Cost-benefit analysis; Global
Cover IMF Working Papers
Tax Elasticity Estimates for Capital Stocks in Canada
Jean-François Wen
,
Fatih Yilmaz
, and
Danea Trejo
The paper provides estimates of the long-run, tax-adjusted, user cost elasticity of capital (UCE) in a small open economy, exploiting three sources of variation in Canadian tax policy: across provinces, industries, and years. Estimates of the UCE with Canadian data are less prone to the endogeneity problems arising from the effects of tax policy changes on the interest rate or on the price of capital equipment. Reductions in the federal corporate income tax rate during the early 2000s for service industries but not for manufacturing, which already benefited from a preferential tax rate, contribute to the identification of the UCE. To capture the long-run relationship between the capital stock and the user cost of capital, an error correction model (ECM) is estimated. Supplementary results are obtained from a distributed lag model in first differences (DLM). With the ECM, our baseline UCE for machinery and equipment (M&E) is -1.312. The corresponding semi-elasticity of the stock of M&E with respect to the METR is about -0.2, suggesting, for example, that a 5 percentage point reduction in the METR, say from 15 to 10 percent, would in the long run generate an increase of 1.0 percent in the stock of M&E. The UCE for non-residential construction is statistically insignificantly different from zero.
Keywords:
WP; cost of capital; open economy; user cost of capital; rate of return; UCE estimate; investment tax credit; depreciation rate; Metr data; elasticities decrease; provincial sales tax; differenced GDP terms; machinery and equipment; Marginal effective tax rate; Stocks; Corporate income tax; Real interest rates; Tax allowances; Global; Capital Taxation; User Cost of Capital Elasticity
Cover Policy Papers
Tax Policy, Leverage and Macroeconomic Stability
International Monetary Fund
Risks to macroeconomic stability posed by excessive private leverage are significantly amplified by tax distortions. ‘Debt bias’ (tax provisions favoring finance by debt rather than equity) has increased leverage in both the household and corporate sectors, and is now widely recognized as a significant macroeconomic concern. This paper presents new evidence of the extent of debt bias, including estimates for banks and non-bank financial institutions both before and after the global financial crisis. It presents policy options to alleviate debt bias, and assesses their effectiveness. The paper finds that thin capitalization rules restricting interest deductibility have only partially been able to address debt bias, but that an allowance for corporate equity has generally proved effective. The paper concludes that debt bias should feature prominently in countries’ tax reform plans in the coming years.
Keywords:
PP; debt shifting; asset ratio; cost of capital; cash flow; debt vulnerability; interest deductibility; debt bias; income tax; double taxation; banking sector; Debt bias; Allowance for corporate equity; Housing prices; Corporate income tax; Stocks; Europe; Global; ACE duplication; house-price volatility; ACE system; Personal income tax
Cover IMF Staff Country Reports
Republic of Armenia: Third Review Under the Extended Arrangement, and Request for Waiver and Modification of Performance Criteria-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Republic of Armenia
International Monetary Fund. Middle East and Central Asia Dept.
This paper discusses Armenia’s Third Review Under the Extended Arrangement, and Request for Waiver and Modification of Performance Criteria (PC). Growth in Armenia is expected to remain subdued as recession in Russia continues and as the base effects of the 2015 one-off factors dissipate. The program performance has been broadly satisfactory. All end-December 2015 PCs, except for the fiscal deficit PC, and all the continuous PCs were met. The fiscal deficit PC was missed by 0.3 percent of GDP. The IMF staff supports completion of the review and the authorities’ request for a purchase in an amount equivalent to SDR 15.65 million.
Keywords:
ISCR; CR; government; broad money; economic activity; bank credit growth; CBA; state company; government plan; authorities estimate; financial markets condition; reform agenda objective; Tax law; Global; Eastern Europe
Cover IMF Working Papers
Taxation and Corporate Debt: Are Banks any Different?
Mr. Jost Heckemeyer
and
Ruud A. de Mooij
This paper explores whether corporate tax bias toward debt finance differs between banks and nonbanks, using a large panel of micro data. On average, it finds that there is no significant difference. The marginal tax effect for both banks and non-banks is close to 0.2. However, the responsiveness differs considerably across the size distribution and the conditional leverage distribution. For nonbanks, we find a U-shaped relationship between asset size and tax responsiveness, although this pattern does not hold universally across the conditional leverage distribution. For banks, in contrast, the tax responsiveness declines linearly in asset size. Quantile regressions show further that capitaltight banks are significantly less responsive than are capital-abundant banks; the same pattern holds for the largest non-banks. Still, even the largest banks with high conditional leverage ratios feature a significant, positive tax response.
Keywords:
WP; bank; debt; size distribution; quantile; Corporate tax; debt bias; leverage; banks; non-financial firms; quantile regressions; leverage ratio; bank dummy; capital structure regression; bank assets; bank choice; Corporate income tax; Bank levy; Collateral; Inflation; Global
Cover IMF Working Papers
Taxation, Bank Leverage, and Financial Crises
Ruud A. de Mooij
,
Mr. Michael Keen
, and
Mr. Masanori Orihara
That most corporate tax systems favor debt over equity finance is now widely recognized as, potentially, amplifying risks to financial stability. This paper makes a first attempt to explore, empirically, the link between this tax bias and the probability of financial crisis. It finds that greater tax bias is associated with significantly higher aggregate bank leverage, and that this in turn is associated with a significantly greater chance of crisis. The implication is that tax bias makes crises much more likely, and, conversely, that the welfare gains from policies to alleviate it can be substantial—far greater than previous studies, which have ignored financial stability considerations, suggest.
Keywords:
WP; leverage; bank; bank leverage; rate; Bank taxation; corporate tax; debt bias; leverage ratio; bank assets; bank loss; bank characteristic; bank leverage ratio; Corporate income tax; Bank levy; Banking crises
Cover IMF Working Papers
Taxation and Leverage in International Banking
Ms. Grace Weishi Gu
,
Ruud A. de Mooij
, and
Mr. Tigran Poghosyan
This paper explores how corporate taxes affect the financial structure of multinational banks. Guided by a simple theory of optimal capital structure it tests (i) whether corporate taxes induce subsidiary banks to raise their debt-asset ratio in light of the traditional debt bias; and (ii) whether international corporate tax differentials vis-a-vis foreign subsidiary banks affect the intra-bank capital structure through international debt shifting. Using a novel subsidiary-level dataset for 558 commercial bank subsidiaries of the 86 largest multinational banks in the world, we find that taxes matter significantly, through both the traditional debt bias channel and the international debt shifting that is due to the international tax differentials. The latter channel is more robust and tends to be quantitatively more important. Our results imply that taxation causes significant international debt spillovers through multinational banks, which has potentially important implications for tax policy.
Keywords:
WP; short-term debt; tax credit; debt ratio; banking sector; parent bank; Bank taxation; corporate tax; debt bias; leverage; subsidiary bank; tax difference; capital requirement; bank leverage; Corporate income tax; Deposit insurance; Tax allowances; Global
Cover IMF Staff Country Reports
France: Selected Issues Paper
International Monetary Fund
This note estimates potential output for France during 1980–2010, using three distinct approaches, and discusses long-term growth prospects. The focus on capital taxation highlights the need for a broader reform of the French tax system to address the features that hamper job growth, investment, and productivity growth. This paper analyzes the impact of Basel III capital requirements on French banks and the French economy, and proposes policy recommendations. French banks should be able to meet the new requirements through earnings retention.
Keywords:
ISCR; CR; France; staff calculation; financial crisis; labor force; product market reform; TFP growth; capital requirement; output loss; Basel III; Corporate income tax; Labor taxes; Social security contributions; Tax wedge; Global; Europe
Cover IMF Staff Country Reports
Republic of Lithuania: Selected Issues
International Monetary Fund
This Selected Issues paper on the Republic of Lithuania discusses structure of the financial sector, banking system vulnerabilities, and challenges. Rapid credit growth has been channeled into consumer and real estate lending, and is increasingly financed by foreign borrowing. The financial soundness indicators (FSIs) suggest a sound banking system, but may be lagging measure for financial system health. The current stress tests do not include a scenario with an economy-wide recession that could describe broader systemic risks to the banking system.
Keywords:
ISCR; CR; bank; earnings; worker; rate; parent bank; tax wedge; bank asset-to-GDP ratio; word bank World Development Indicators; bank supervisor; parent-bank lending; income tax; Personal income tax; Tax wedge; Wages; Income tax systems; Securities; Eastern Europe; Baltics; Global
Cover IMF Staff Country Reports
Bolivia: Second Review Under the Stand-By Arrangement and Request for Waiver of Applicability and Modification of Performance Criteria—Staff Report; Staff Statement; Press Release on the Executive Board Discussion; and Statement by the Executive Director for Bolivia
International Monetary Fund
Bolivia’s pursuit of structural reforms has begun to yield results despite the difficult social and political context. The fiscal performance under the program needs to be substantially strengthened. The recent passage of the informal corporate workout law represents a substantial advance in financial and corporate restructuring. Executive Directors are in agreement with the government on the approach to reduce banking system fragility. To sustain economic growth, the pace of structural reforms has to be invigorated. Firm implementation of the program can achieve its goals.
Keywords:
ISCR; CR; CPI inflation rate; September; financial system deposit; lender of last resort facilities; deficit; tax regularization scheme; reform agenda; Exports; Commercial banks; Tax law; North America