Index
Figures, notes, and tables are indicated by f, n, and t following the page number.
A
account ownership
gender gaps in, 9t, 15, 17t, 26t, 103
by household, 103 –104, 104 –105f, 109f
indicator description and source, 9t, 17t
legal disparities related to, 78
in MENA vs. rest of world, 12, 25t, 103, 104 –105f
Acemoglu, D., 30, 64
added worker effect, 32
advanced economies (AEs)
account ownership in, 12
governance quality in, 31
infant mortality rates in, 90
Internet access in, 12
labor markets in, 63, 80, 81f
remote work in, 66–67
social spending in, 90, 93f
age, remote work amenability by, 69, 69n8, 70f
Aghion, P., 30, 30n2
Aguirre, D., 31
AI. See artificial intelligence
Alesina, A., 30
Alper, F. O., 96
Anderson, Gareth, 119
Ansari, Mahdi, 41
Anzoategui, D., 114n10
Appendino, M., 111
Arab Spring, 31, 43
Arezki, R., 45
artificial intelligence (AI), 1, 63, 64
automation, 1, 3, 63–66, 67f, 72
Autor, D., 64
Ayyagari, M., 111
B
Balasubramanian, S., 7
Baldacci, E., 96
Balima, Hippolyte, 75
banks and banking. See also account ownership; borrowing
branch networks, 108, 109f
competition among, 113–114, 114n10
digital, 12, 49, 99
sector characteristics, 113–114, 113f
state-owned, 44, 111
women in leadership at, 32
Barajas, Adolfo, 103, 111, 115
Barro, R. J., 30
basic legal rights index, 78–81, 79f, 79–80t, 85t
Belhaj, F., 45
benefit sharing
economic growth and, 29–30
IMF definition of, 1, 8f
inclusiveness index data on, 8–9, 25t
indicators of, 8, 9t
policy framework for, 7
standards of living and, 7
Berg, A. G., 30
Bibolov, Aidyn, 7
Blancher, N., 111, 113
borrowing. See also credit
collateral needed for, 114, 114f
financial depth and, 107, 108f
financial frictions and, 33
household rates of, 103 –104, 104 –105f, 107, 108f
indicator description and source, 9t, 17t
in MENA vs. rest of world, 12–13, 25t, 103, 104 –105f
by SMEs, 49, 105, 107f
Buera, F. J., 30, 32, 37
business dynamism, 45, 48, 59t
C
carbon taxes, 4, 126, 126f
Cardarelli, Roberto, 1
Cerra, V., 7
Cihak, M., 32
Cingano, F., 30
Climate Bonds Initiative, 127–128
climate change, 119–128
adaptation to, 3, 4, 119, 122–128
financing needs, 125–128, 125–127f
inclusive growth and, 3, 4, 119, 122–124
macroeconomic impact of, 121–123, 122–123f
policy implications of, 123–125, 128
trends related to, 1, 119–121, 120–121f
climate hazards, 119–120, 119n2, 120f, 122
competitive equilibrium, 38
corruption
control of, 9t, 16, 18t, 26t, 97, 100
distortions due to, 29, 32
IMF index of, 31
scope of, 49–50, 50f, 89
COVID-19 pandemic
economic impact of, 29, 31, 41
educational access during, 90, 92f
fintech utilization during, 114–116
health services access during, 90, 99
inequality exacerbation by, 1, 3, 7, 89, 90
labor markets impacted by, 63, 66, 72, 90
social spending during, 89, 95–96, 95f, 99–100
women and, 90, 92f
credit. See also borrowing
access to, 1–3, 31–32, 44, 49, 78, 113 –114, 116
partial credit guarantees, 115
private, 9t, 14, 19t, 26t, 43f
public, 9t, 14, 19t, 26t, 42–44, 43f
Cuberes, D., 31
D
Dabla-Norris, E., 30, 33n3
Demiral, M., 96
Demirguc-Kunt, A., 111
developing economies. See emerging market and developing economies
digital payments, 12, 49, 96, 99, 111, 112f, 114
Dingel, J. I., 68, 68n5, 70
discrimination, gender- based, 78, 82, 85–86t
displacement effect of automation, 64
distortions
expenditures and, 31
in financial services provision, 115
governance, 32–34, 34t, 35n8, 37
incentives and, 29, 30
in labor markets, 2, 44
policy-induced, 3, 42, 75
product market, 2, 32–34, 34t, 35n8, 37
state interventions and, 44–45
diversification, 1, 46b, 106, 116
Duenwald, C, 96, 97
E
economic growth and development. See also gross domestic product
climate change and, 122
equal shares of gains from, 1, 4, 16
financial inclusion and, 49, 111, 111f, 116
inclusiveness as factor in, 2, 29–35
labor market gender gaps and, 75
productivity decline as drag on, 41
state involvement for initiation of, 46b
economic stability, 29–32, 96, 113, 116, 119, 12 3
educational access. See also expected years of schooling; secondary school enrollment
in COVID-19 pandemic, 90, 92f
economic growth and, 30, 30n2
gender gaps in, 89, 90
indicator description and source, 9t, 17t
literacy rates and, 90, 91f
in MENA vs. rest of world, 8, 10, 10f, 12f, 24–25t
pre-primary school enrollment, 78, 86t
remote work amenability and, 69, 70f
social spending and, 93–95f, 95–97, 99
student-to-teacher ratios and, 9t, 10, 17t, 25t
to vocational training, 9t, 10, 17t, 25t, 30, 72 , 10 0
effective hours worked, 75, 75n1, 82–83f, 83–84
efficiency of social spending, 89, 93–97, 94–95f, 98f, 100
electricity access, 78, 86t, 126
emerging market and developing economies (EMDEs)
account ownership in, 12
automation effects in, 64
educational access in, 10, 90
financial inclusion in, 12, 111
governance quality in, 31
human capital accumulation by, 30
income inequality in, 9
Internet access in, 12
labor markets in, 14, 30, 42, 80, 81f
private sector in, 14, 30, 42, 45
remote work in, 67
social spending in, 90, 92, 93f
sustainability of growth in, 7
employment. See labor markets; unemployment
employment-to-population ratio, 9t, 14, 18t, 26t
Employment Vulnerability index, 65–66, 66–67f
empowerment
economic growth and, 31
gender gaps in, 75, 76f
IMF definition of, 2, 8f
inclusiveness index data on, 16, 26t
indicators of, 8, 9t
policy framework for, 7
entrepreneurship
female, 2, 77, 78
in general equilibrium model, 32–35, 37
in private sector, 45, 46b, 49
promotion of, 1
expected years of schooling
economic growth and, 30
indicator description and source, 9t, 17t
in MENA vs. rest of world, 10, 25t, 90, 91f
social spending and, 95f, 96
for women, 78, 86t
F
females. See women
fertility rates, 78, 86t, 96
Feyen, E., 108
Filmer, D., 96
Financial Access Survey, 105, 105n4, 108n5
financial depth, 106 –109, 108f
financial frictions, 30, 32–35, 33n3, 37
financial inclusion, 103–116. See also account ownership; borrowing; small and medium enterprise financial inclusion
defined, 103
economic growth and, 49, 111, 111f, 116
financial depth and, 106–109, 108f
fintech’s role in, 3, 114–116
government interventions for, 115
of households, 103 –104, 104 –105f, 107, 108 –109f, 111–113, 112f
indicator description and source, 9t, 17t
Internet access and, 9t, 12–13, 17t, 25t
labor markets and, 111, 112f, 116
macroeconomic benefits of, 109–111, 110t, 111–112f
in MENA vs. rest of world, 8, 10f, 12–13, 13f, 24–25t
policies for expansion of, 111–114, 112 –114f, 116
social spending efficiency and, 89
structural benchmarks of, 108, 109f, 111, 116
financial literacy, 111, 113
financial-related legal rights index, 78–81, 79f, 79–80t, 85t
financial stability, 32, 44, 115, 119, 123
fintech, 3, 114–116, 114n11
Forbes, K. J., 30
Fouejieu, A., 113, 114
Frey, C. B., 65–66
frictions. See financial frictions
fuel subsidies, 125–126, 125f, 126nn6
G
Garrote Sanchez, D., 69n8
GCC countries. See Gulf Cooperation Council countries
GDP. See gross domestic product
gender discrimination, 78, 82, 85–86t
gender gaps
in account ownership, 9t, 15, 17t, 26t, 103
in automation vulnerability, 66, 67f
in educational access, 89, 90
empirical analysis of, 79–81, 79–80t, 81f
in labor markets, 9t, 15, 17t, 26t, 31, 75, 77–84
in MENA vs. rest of world, 75, 76f
model analysis of, 81–84, 82–83f
in secondary school enrollment, 9t, 15, 17t, 26t
structural and policy determinants of, 77–78, 79f, 85–86t
gender inclusion. See also gender gaps
indicator description and source, 9t, 17t
in MENA vs. rest of world, 8, 10f, 14–15, 15f, 24t, 26t
in national parliaments, 9t, 15, 17t, 26t
WBL Index and, 9t, 15, 17t, 26t, 77–78, 77n2
general equilibrium models
gender- related policies in, 2, 81–84, 82–83f
of inclusive growth, 2, 32–38, 33nn4, 34–35t
Ghassibe, M., 111
Gini coefficient, 9, 23, 30
Gini index, 3, 9t, 18t, 25t, 75, 83
Global Findex Survey, 103, 103n3, 104, 111, 114
global warming. See climate change
Gomes, Diego, 75
governance distortions, 32–34, 34t, 35n8, 37
governance quality
corruption control and, 9t, 16, 18t, 26t, 97, 100
economic growth and, 31
government effectiveness and, 9t, 16, 18t, 26t, 97
indicator description and source, 9t, 18t
in MENA vs. rest of world, 8, 10f, 16, 16f, 24t, 26t
regulatory quality and, 9t, 16, 18t, 26t
rule of law and, 9t, 16, 18t, 26t, 97, 98f
social spending and, 96, 97f
World Press Freedom Index and, 9t, 16, 18t, 26t
green bonds, 127–128
gross domestic product (GDP)
climate change and, 121, 122–123f
external finance-to-GDP ratio, 33, 33n6
female labor force participation and, 31, 82f, 84
in MENA vs. peer group countries, 9, 11f
public sector wage bill as percent of, 43
remote work amenability and, 68, 69f, 71f
social spending as percent of, 90, 93f
SOE losses as percent of, 44
in structural variables index, 78, 86t
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries
climate change adaptation in, 122, 128
educational access in, 10, 12f
financial inclusion in, 12–13, 13f, 106
gender inclusion in, 15, 15f
health services access in, 11–12, 13f
inclusive growth scores for, 8
income inequality in, 9, 11f
infant mortality rates in, 90
labor market inclusion in, 14, 14f
public- private wage gap in, 44
social spending in, 93, 94f
third generation SOEs in, 46b
Guner, N., 33
Gupta, S., 96
Guscina, Anastasia, 89, 96, 97
H
Haile, F., 96
Hatayama, M., 68–70
hazards. See climate hazards
HDI. See Human Development Index
health services access
in COVID-19 pandemic, 90, 99
to hospital beds, 9t, 11, 18t, 25t, 96
indicator description and source, 9t, 18t
infant mortality rates and, 9t, 11, 18t, 25t, 90, 91f, 96
life expectancy and, 9t, 11, 12, 18t, 25t
in MENA vs. rest of world, 8, 10f, 11–12, 13f, 24–25t
social spending and, 92–97, 93–95f, 99–100
to universal health care, 9t, 11, 18t, 25t, 97
Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI), 48
hospital beds, 9t, 11, 18t, 25t, 96
households
financial inclusion of, 103 –104, 104 –105f, 107, 108 –109f, 111–113, 112f
optimization problem of, 37, 38
saving rates for, 29–30, 32
tax burden for, 78, 82–83
Hsieh, C., 31
human capital
accumulation of, 30, 31
climate change and, 122
depreciation during unemployment, 31
female index of, 71, 72b
labor market experience and, 82
public investment in, 97
remote work and, 71–72, 72b
Human Capital Project (World Bank), 97
Human Development Index (HDI), 3, 90, 96, 97–98f
I
Ianchovichina, E., 7
IMF. See International Monetary Fund
imputed interest rates, 47, 47n5
inclusive growth
benefit sharing and. See benefit sharing
climate change and, 3, 4, 119, 122–124
definitions of, 7–8, 8f
economic impact of, 2, 29–35
empowerment and. See empowerment
general equilibrium model of, 2, 32–38, 33nn4, 34–35t
indicators of, 8, 9t, 17–19t
as moral and ethical imperative, 29
opportunity and. See opportunity
participation and. See participation in economic life
policy priorities for, 3–4
private-sector-led, 41–42, 48–50
social spending and, 89, 96–99, 97–99f
stability and, 2, 31–32, 35
inclusiveness indexes, 7–26
applications of, 2, 7, 16
on benefit sharing, 8–9, 25t
country groupings for, 8, 8n4, 21–22t
on empowerment, 16, 26t
indicators for, 8, 9t, 17–19t
methodology for, 8, 8n3, 23, 23n6
on opportunity, 9–13, 25t
overall index scores, 8, 10f, 24t
on participation in economic life, 13–15, 26t
subindex scores, 8, 10f, 24–26t
income inequality
economic growth and, 29–30
female labor force participation and, 3, 82f, 83
indicator description and source, 9t, 18t
in MENA vs. rest of world, 8–9, 10f, 12f, 24–25t
public-private wage gap, 44
shock resilience and, 31–32
technological progress and, 63
inequality. See also gender gaps; income inequality
climate change effects and, 123
COVID-19 pandemic in exacerbation of, 1, 3, 7, 89, 90
of opportunity and outcomes, 9
infant mortality rates, 9t, 11, 18t, 25t, 90, 91f, 96
informal sector workers, 31, 89, 90, 96, 99
infrastructure
climate change adaptation and, 124, 128
electricity access, 78, 86t
for Internet access, 13, 49
for remote work, 66, 67, 72
transportation-related, 49, 67
water and sanitation services, 78, 86t, 90
infrastructure index, 78–80, 79–80t, 86t
interest rates, 33n3, 47, 47n5, 57t, 114–116
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
on climate change adaptation, 125
corruption index from, 31
on dimensions of inclusive growth, 1–2, 8f
Financial Access Survey, 105, 105n4, 108n5
regional conferences organized by, 1
on SME financial inclusion, 49
social spending as defined by, 90n3
on SOE financial performance, 44
Internet access
indicator description and source, 9t, 17t
infrastructure for, 13, 49
in MENA vs. rest of world, 12–13, 25t
public investment in, 72
for remote work, 63, 66, 71–72, 72b
Ivanyna, M., 31
J
jobs. See labor markets
K
Kaboski, J. P., 30
Kass-Hanna, J., 113
Kazandjian, R., 32
Kibuuka, K., 108
Kumhof, M., 32
L
labor market inclusion
economic growth and, 30–31
employment-to-population ratio and, 9t, 14, 18t, 26t
indicator description and source, 9t, 18–19t
informal sector workers and, 31, 89, 90, 96, 99
in MENA vs. rest of world, 8, 10f, 14, 14f, 24t, 26t
self-employed workers and, 9t, 14, 19t, 26t
youth unemployment and, 9t, 14, 18t, 26t, 121
labor markets, 63–84. See also labor market inclusion; unemployment
artificial intelligence and, 1, 63, 64
automation and, 1, 3, 63–66, 67f, 72
climate change and, 121, 122f
in COVID-19 pandemic, 63, 66, 72, 90
distortions within, 2, 44
effective hours worked in, 75, 75n1, 82–83f, 83–84
female participation in, 2–3, 31–32, 67, 72b, 75, 77f, 83
financial inclusion and, 111, 112f, 116
gender gaps in, 9t, 15, 17t, 26t, 31, 75, 77–84
global trends involving, 63
legislation index, 78–81, 79f, 79–80t, 86t
nonroutine tasks in, 65, 65f
policy agenda for, 9t, 14, 19t, 26t, 72
private sector, 30, 42, 44–45, 65, 72
public sector, 42–44, 65
remote work and, 3, 63, 66–72, 68–71f, 69n8, 72b
segmentation within, 2, 31, 63
by skill level, 64–65, 64–65f, 64n2
upskilling/reskilling of, 63, 72
Lall, Subir, 1
LICs. See low-income countries
life expectancy
indicator description and source, 9t, 18t
in MENA vs. rest of world, 11, 12, 25t, 91f
social spending and, 94, 94f, 96, 97, 98f
literacy, 90, 91f, 111, 113
living standards, 4, 7, 29
loans. See borrowing
low-income countries (LICs)
climate change adaptation in, 122, 128
educational access in, 10
financial inclusion in, 12
governance quality in, 31
income inequality in, 9
infant mortality rates in, 90
labor markets in, 14, 81f
private sector inclusion in, 14
social spending in, 90, 92, 93f
Lundstrom Gable, S., 7
Lyons, A. C., 113
M
Ma, Jiayi, 7
Maggi, Chiara, 29
Mahmoudi, S. E., 111
Maksimovic, V., 111
market dominance, 9t, 14, 19t, 26, 32
Martin, Mercedes Vera, 1
MartÃnez PerÃa, M. S., 114n10
Mathai, K., 96, 97
Melecky, M., 115
Middle East and North Africa (MENA)
Arab Spring in, 31, 43
climate change in. See climate change
education in. See educational access
financial inclusion in. See financial inclusion
GCC in. See Gulf Cooperation Council countries
gender issues in. See gender inclusion
governance in. See governance quality
health services in. See health services access
inclusive growth in. See inclusive growth
income inequality in, 8–9, 10f, 12f, 24–25t
labor markets in. See labor markets
population projections for, 63
private sector in. See private sector
public sector footprint in, 42–44, 43f
social spending in. See social spending
SOEs in. See state-owned enterprises
total factor productivity growth in, 41–42, 42f
Midrigan, V., 30
Mohieldin, M., 45
mortality rates. See infant mortality rates
N
National Adaptation Plans (NAPs), 124, 124n4
Ndoye, Anta, 103, 113, 114
Nedelkoska, L., 64
Neiman, B., 68, 68n5, 70
Nino-Zarazua, M., 96
North Africa. See Middle East and North Africa
O
OECD. See Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
O*NET database, 65, 65n3, 68
opportunity
economic growth and, 30
gender gaps in, 75, 76f
IMF definition of, 1, 8f
inclusiveness index data on, 9–13, 25t
indicators of, 8, 9t
policy framework for, 7
optimization problem of households, 37, 38
Orbis database, 45–46, 53, 53t
Organisation for Economic Co- operation and
Development (OECD), 7, 7n2, 44
Ortigueira, S., 32
Osborne, M. A., 65–66
Ostry, J. D., 30, 31
P
pandemic. See COVID-19 pandemic
participation in economic life
barriers for women, 4
economic growth and, 30–31
gender gaps in, 75, 76f
IMF definition of, 2, 8f
inclusiveness index data on, 13–15, 26t
indicators of, 8, 9t
mobility limitations and, 78
policy framework for, 7
patents, 30n2, 45, 46–47f, 46b
Perotti, R., 30
Petrescu, Monica, 41
Podpiera, A. M., 115
political stability, 113, 123
poverty
COVID-19 pandemic in exacerbation of, 3, 7, 89, 90
in MENA vs. rest of world, 8–9, 11f, 91f
social spending and reduction in, 96
Prado, M., 31
press freedom, 9t, 16, 18t, 26t
Price, B., 64
price stability, 113
Pritchett, L., 96
private credit, 9t, 14, 19t, 26t, 43f
private sector. See also private sector inclusion
barriers to expansion of, 3, 46b, 49
in climate change adaptation, 3, 124
corruption involving, 49, 50f
entrepreneurship in, 45, 46b, 49
growth model led by, 41–42, 48–50
labor markets in, 30, 42, 44–45, 65, 72
sales over time in, 47, 48f
SOE impact on, 2, 48, 59t
underdevelopment of, 1, 65
private sector inclusion
economic growth and, 30
indicator description and source, 9t, 19t
market dominance and, 9t, 14, 19t, 26, 32
in MENA vs. rest of world, 8, 10f, 14, 15f, 24t, 26t
ratio of private-to-public credit and, 9t, 14, 19t, 26t, 43f
product market distortions, 2, 32–34, 34t, 35n8, 37
public credit, 9t, 14, 19t, 26t, 42–44, 43f
public policy index, 78–81, 79f, 79–80t, 86t
public sector. See also social spending; state-owned enterprises
accountability within, 16
distortions associated with interventions by, 44–45
labor markets in, 42–44, 65
size across world regions, 42, 43f, 51t
wage bills in, 43, 93, 93n4, 94f
Q
queuing phenomenon, 44
Quintini, G., 64
R
Rajkumar, A., 96
Ranciere, R., 32
recessions, 1, 32, 90
refugees, 89, 90, 97
regulatory quality, 9t, 16, 18t, 26t
Rehman, Sidra, 63
reinstatement effect of automation, 64
remote work, 3, 63, 66–72, 68–71f, 69n8, 72b
Restrepo, P., 64
returns on capital, 48, 48n6
Rocha, R., 114n10
Rodrik, D., 30
rule of law, 9t, 16, 18t, 26t, 97, 98f
S
Sachs, J. D., 64
Sahay, R., 32, 109
Salerno, A., 31
sanitation services, 78, 86t, 90
savings, 29–30, 32, 34, 37, 105, 106
schooling. See educational access
secondary school enrollment
gender gaps in, 9t, 15, 17t, 26t
indicator description and source, 9t, 17t
in MENA vs. rest of world, 10, 25t, 90, 91f
social spending and, 94–95f, 96
self-employed workers, 9t, 14, 19t, 26t
Shin, Y., 30, 32, 37
Siassi, N., 32
small and medium enterprise (SME) financial inclusion
bank lending and, 49, 105, 107f
economic growth and, 49, 111, 111f, 116
financial depth and, 107, 108f
importance of, 104, 106f
indicator description and source, 9t, 19t
labor markets and, 111, 112f, 116
macro- financial and institutional factors in, 113 –114
in MENA vs. rest of world, 14, 26t, 103 –106, 107f
partial credit guarantees and, 115
SOBs. See state-owned banks
social protection systems
access to, 31, 90
fragmentation of, 1
reform proposals, 3
spending on, 93, 93–94f, 96, 97f
targeted, 89, 93, 99
social spending, 89–100
coverage of, 3, 95f, 96, 97, 99, 99f
in COVID-19 pandemic, 89, 95–96, 95f, 99–100
on education, 93–95f, 95–97, 99
efficiency of, 89, 93–97, 94–95f, 98f, 100
fiscal space for, 89, 95, 99, 100
governance quality and, 96, 97f
on health care, 92–97, 93–95f, 99–100
IMF definition of, 90n3
inclusive growth and, 89, 96–99, 97–99f
in MENA vs. rest of world, 90, 92–93, 93–94f
on social protection, 93, 93–94f, 96, 97f
social stability, 119
socioeconomic indicators, 2, 3, 89–90, 91f, 97, 99
SOEs. See state-owned enterprises
Sourrouille, D., 108
stability
climate change as threat to, 128
economic, 29–32, 96, 113, 116, 119, 123
financial, 32, 44, 115, 119, 123
inclusiveness and, 2, 31–32, 35
political, 113, 123
price, 113
social, 119
standards of living, 4, 7, 29
state- owned banks (SOBs), 44, 111
state-owned enterprises (SOEs), 41–50
corruption involving, 49, 50f
fiscal support for, 44–45, 45f
market dominance of, 32
market dynamics and, 47, 55–59t
in MENA vs. rest of world, 46, 47f
Orbis database of, 45–46, 53, 53t
private sector impacted by, 2, 48, 59t
reform proposals, 48–49
sales over time, 47, 48f
size and scope of, 41, 43–44, 43f
third generation, 46b
structural benchmarks, 108, 109f, 111, 116
structural variables index, 78–80, 79f, 79–80t, 86t
student-to-teacher ratios, 9t, 10, 17t, 25t
Sustainable Development Agenda (2030), 29
Swaroop, V., 96
Sydorenko, T., 113, 114
T
Tambunlertchai, Suchanan, 41
Tang, Xin, 29
taxation
in advanced economies, 31
carbon taxes, 4, 126, 126f
exemptions from, 4, 100
household tax burden, 78, 82–83
of SOEs, 44, 47, 49
Teignier, M., 31
tele-workability indexes, 68, 68n4
third generation SOEs, 46b
Tiongson, E. H., 96
total factor productivity, 30, 33, 37, 41–42, 42f
transportation infrastructure, 49, 67
turnover rates, 34–35, 35n8, 35t
U
unemployment. See also labor markets
climate change and, 121, 122f
human capital depreciation during, 31
queuing phenomenon and, 44
of youth, 9t, 14, 18t, 26t, 121
United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), 124
United Nations Sustainable Development Agenda (2030), 29
universal health care, 9t, 11, 18t, 25t, 97
V
Velasquez, Agustin, 63
Ventura, G., 33
Verhoeven, M., 96
Viollaz, M., 65, 68–70
vocational training, 9t, 10, 17t, 25t, 30, 72, 100
W
water access
climate change and, 120, 121, 123
in COVID-19 pandemic, 90
in health outcomes regression, 96
in infrastructure index, 78, 86t
subsidies for, 126
WBES. See World Bank Enterprise Survey
WBL database. See Women, Business, and the Law database
WBL Index. See Women, Business, and the Law Index
Winant, P., 32
Winkler, H., 65, 68–70
women. See also gender gaps; gender inclusion
barriers to participation in economic life, 4
in COVID- 19 pandemic, 90, 92f
economic opportunities for, 1
entrepreneurship of, 2, 77, 78
expected years of schooling for, 78, 86t
labor market participation, 2–3, 31–32, 67, 72b, 75, 77f, 83
remote work opportunities for, 69–72, 70–71f, 72b
social spending targeting of, 89, 9 7, 99
unpaid work of, 67, 78n3, 82n9, 92f
Women, Business, and the Law (WBL) database, 77–78, 77n2
Women, Business, and the Law (WBL) Index, 9t, 15, 17t, 26t
workers. See labor markets
World Bank
on COVID-19 pandemic, 90
Gender database, 79
Human Capital Project, 97
on infrastructure investment, 49
on partial credit guarantees, 115
WBL database, 77–78, 77n2
World Bank Enterprise Survey (WBES), 105–106
World Press Freedom Index, 9t, 16, 18t, 26t
X
Xu, Y., 30, 33
Y
Yang, Yang, 7
youth unemployment, 9t, 14, 18t, 26t, 121
Yusuf, S., 64
Z
Zilibotti, F., 30