Title page

GOOD GOVERNANCE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Opportunities and Lessons

Editors

MONIQUE NEWIAK ALEX SEGURA-UBIERGO ABDOUL AZIZ WANE

Copyright Page

© 2022 International Monetary Fund

Cover design: IMF CSF Creative Solutions Division

Cataloging-in-Publication Data IMF Library

Names: Newiak, Monique, editor. | Segura-Ubiergo, Alex, editor. | Wane, Abdoul Aziz, editor. | International Monetary Fund, publisher.

Title: Good governance in sub-Saharan Africa : opportunities and lessons / editors, Monique Newiak, Alex Segura-Ubiergo, Abdoul Aziz Wane.

Description: Washington, DC : International Monetary Fund, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: ISBN 9781513584058 (paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Political corruption—Africa, sub-Saharan. | Corruption—Africa, Sub-Saharan.

Classification: LCC JQ1875.A55 G66 2021

Recommended citation: Newiak, Monique, Alex Segura-Ubiergo, and Abdoul Aziz Wane, eds. 2022. Good Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa: Opportunities and Lessons. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.

ISBN: 978–1-51358–405-8 (paper)

978–1-513596–204-6 (ePub)

978–1-51359–632-7 (PDF)

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Contents

• Foreword by Kristalina Georgieva

• Contributors

• Acknowledgments

• Introduction: Reaping the Dividends of Good Governance

• 1 The Macro-Fiscal Benefits of Eliminating Corruption in Government

• 2 Pathways to Reaping a Governance Dividend in Sub-Saharan Africa

• 3 Three Strong Governance Performers in Sub-Saharan Africa: Achievements and Way Forward

• 4 Reaping the Benefits from Better Governance in Nigeria

• 5 CEMAC: A Regional Approach to Enhancing Governance

• 6 Macro-Fiscal Gains from Anticorruption Reforms in the Republic of Congo

• 7 Addressing Corruption in Fragile Country Settings

• 8 Reaping the Benefits of Good Governance in the Democratic Republic of Congo

• 9 Madagascar: Institution-Building in a Fragile State

• 10 Strengthening Governance and Reducing Vulnerability to Corruption in Comoros

• 11 Accountability in Supporting the Emergency Response to a Crisis: Lessons from COVID-19 Funds

• 12 The Role of Supreme Audit Institutions in Addressing Corruption, Including in Emergency Settings

• 13 Central Bank Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Overview Based on Experience with the IMF’s Safeguards Assessments

• 14 The Dividends of Digitalization and Big Data to Institutional Quality and the Macroeconomy

• 15 Digitalization, Corruption, and Trust in Tax Officials in Africa

• Abbreviations

• Index

Foreword

Contributors

Ms. Monique Newiak is the IMF’s Resident Representative in Sierra Leone. She has worked in a wide range of countries in sub-Saharan Africa, most recently as a senior economist for Nigeria. She has been a key contributor to the IMF’s analytical and operational agenda on inclusive growth, including as a co-editor of the book Women, Work and Economic Growth—Leveling the Playing Field. She holds master’s degrees in business administration and economics, and a Ph.D. in Economics (Ludwig-Maximillian’s University of Munich).

Mr. Alex Segura-Ubiergo is an advisor at the IMF. He has led surveillance and program negotiation missions in a number of African countries, and was also Resident Representative in Senegal, The Gambia, and Mozambique. He was mission chief for Ecuador and senior economist for Brazil, and is the author of The Political Economy of the Welfare State in Latin America: Globalization, Democracy and Development (Cambridge University Press). He holds advanced degrees in both Economics and Political Science from the Autonomous University of Barcelona, and a Ph.D. (with distinction) from Columbia University, where he was a Fulbright scholar. His dissertation won the Mancur Olson Award for the best Political Economy dissertation.

Mr. Abdoul Aziz Wane is the director of the IMF’s Africa Training Institute and AFRITAC South. Prior to joining the IMF, he was a lecturer at the University of Dakar. At the IMF, he has held mission chief and resident representative positions and worked in the Fiscal Affairs and the Strategy, Policy, and Review departments. He has published on growth, public investment, and green investment. He holds a master’s degree in econometrics from the University of Toulouse and a doctorate from the University of Dakar.

Mr. Ibrahim Ahamada is an economist working in the Union of the Comoros resident representative office in the IMF’s African Department. Previously, he has worked as a lecturer-researcher at the University Paris-1, Panthéon-Sorbonne, France. He holds a Ph.D. in Economics from Aix Marseille II University.

Mr. Martin Aldcroft is a public audit specialist in the Strategic Support Unit at the INTOSAI Development Initiative (IDI), where he focuses on global partnerships and policy issues on support to Supreme Audit Institutions (SAI) in developing economies as well as IDI’s strategy, planning, results, and performance reporting. He was previously head of the INTOSAI-Donor Secretariat, where he led development of the INTOSAI SAI Performance Measurement Framework. Earlier in his career, he was a governance advisor at DFID (UK), where he was the DFID member of the PEFA Steering Committee and authored DFID’s guidance on Managing Fiduciary Risk. His professional background is as a UK practitioner in public audit, and later as a consultant in Public Financial Management working mainly in Africa, Eastern Europe, and Southeast Asia. He holds a master’s degree from Cambridge University and belongs to the UK Chartered Institute of Public Finance.

Mr. Richard Allen is a UK and U.S. citizen. He is a Senior Research Associate of the Overseas Development Institute and was until 2021 a senior staff member of the IMF’s Fiscal Affairs Department. Previously, he worked with the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the SIGMA program at the OECD, and the UK Treasury, and was on the Board of the European Investment Bank. He has published extensively on public finance. He is co-editor of The International Handbook of Public Financial Management (Palgrave Macmillan 2015) and of Managing Public Expenditure: A Reference Book for Transition Countries (OECD 2001), and co-authored Assessing and Reforming Public Financial Management: A New Approach (World Bank 2004). He holds a master’s degree in Economics and Public Finance from the University of York.

Ms. Ozlem Aydin is an economist in the IMF Fiscal Affairs Department (Public Financial Management Division). She is a lawyer by training and was previously a Consulting Counsel in the Financial and Fiscal Law Unit of the IMF’s Legal Department. At the IMF, she deals primarily with matters related to public financial management, including fiscal responsibility, public debt management, state-owned enterprises, public investment, and public-private partnerships. Prior to joining the IMF she worked as Senior Associate and Counsel in the PPP Department and Legal Department of the Turkish Treasury, respectively.

Mr. Mokhtar Benlamine is a senior economist in the IMF’s African Department. Before joining the IMF, he worked for more than 10 years at the Central Bank of Morocco as head of the macroeconomic studies unit and at the Ministry of Finance as a tax inspector. He was a visiting professor at the University of Hassan II for five years, holds a Ph.D. in Economics from Mohammed V University, Morocco, and is an engineer in applied economics.

Ms. Julia Cardoso joined the IMF’s Safeguards Assessment division in 2017, where she helps conduct due diligence exercises on central banks and their control environments. Before joining the IMF, she worked for a private sector risk consulting firm, Kroll, in its compliance practice, where her experience included mitigating anti-money laundering and anti-bribery and corruption risks. She is a Brazilian national and has a bachelor’s degree in Economics and International Affairs from the George Washington University.

Ms. Ke Chen is a financial sector expert in the Legal Department of the IMF with 15 years of experience in financial integrity and anti-money laundering and combating financing of terrorism (AML/CFT). Her work on these issues covers jurisdictions ranging from advanced economies, emerging markets, and fragile states across the globe. Most recently she co-led the comprehensive AML/CFT assessment of South Africa. Prior to holding the position at the IMF she worked with the People’s Bank of China on national AML/CFT policy and supervisory issues. She holds a master’s degree in International Finance.

Mr. Pasquale Di Benedetta is a senior consulting counsel at the IMF. For over 15 years, he has been working at the World Bank Group on governance reforms for capital markets, financial sectors, and state enterprises in more than 50 countries. An Italian national, he earned his international law degree in Italy (Bari and Trento) and Austria (Salzburg) and his master’s degree in the United States (Johns Hopkins). He is fluent in three languages, resides in Washington, DC, and is the proud father of a four-year-old boy.

Mr. Daniel Yaw Domelevo is the former Auditor-General for the Republic of Ghana (2016–21). Previous jobs include Director of Government Payroll and Chief Accountant for the Ghana Film Industry Corporation (now TV3). He also worked for the World Bank as a Senior Financial Management Specialist in Zimbabwe and Malawi, and currently as an expert on Public Financial Management. A professional accountant by training, and a member of the Institute of Chartered Accountants (Ghana) since 1993, he also holds an Executive Master’s Degree in Business Administration (Finance) from the Business School of the University of Ghana (2002).

Mr. Lars Engstrom is a senior economist in the IMF’s African Department and is currently a member of the team covering Togo. He has wide experience working on low-income and fragile African countries, including on reforms to advance governance and institution building. Previous assignments for the IMF include Resident Representative for Rwanda and Burundi (2005–08) and member of the teams covering Zimbabwe during the recovery from hyperinflation (2009–11) and Madagascar during the return of constitutional order (2014–18). Prior to the IMF, he worked at the Swedish Ministry of Finance and as a financial market analyst. He did his graduate studies in Economics at the University of Umeå, Sweden.

Ms. Camilla Fredriksen is a manager in the INTOSAI Development Initiative. She joined IDI in 2014 and was part of the task force developing the SAI Performance Measurement Framework. From 2017 to 2019 she was an integrated expert in the GIZ programme Good Financial Governance in Africa, supporting SAIs in the AFROSAI region. Before joining IDI, she worked for OAG Norway as a performance auditor, and also led the Secretariat of the EUROSAI Working Group for Environmental Auditing.

Ms. Raveesha Gupta is a citizen of India and worked at the IMF from 2018–21. She supports the East African division and has been engaged on issues related to Comoros for over two years. Previously, she has worked at The Economist Intelligence Unit and George Washington University, and has a master’s degree in Economics from Yale University.

Mr. George Mubanga Kabwe is the head of the Safeguards Assessment Division at the IMF. He previously worked with KPMG in the United Kingdom and the U.S. primarily in the audit practice. At the IMF, he has worked in the Finance Department on financial reporting issues, the IMF’s income model, and safeguard assessments of central banks. He has a bachelor’s degree in Electronics and Computer Engineering from the University of Birmingham in the UK and an MBA from the Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania. He is a fellow of the Association of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales.

Mr. Paulo Medas is division chief of the Fiscal Policy and Surveillance Division in the IMF’s Fiscal Affairs Department. He has led capacity building missions to several countries. He has worked on several editions of the IMF’s Fiscal Monitor, including leading the edition on Curbing Corruption (2019). He was part of the working group that developed the Framework for Enhanced IMF Engagement on Governance (2018). His areas of research include governance and corruption, fiscal crises, state-owned enterprises, and management of natural resources.

Mr. Giovanni Melina is a senior economist in the African Department of the IMF. Before joining the IMF he worked as an Associate Professor of Macroeconomics at City University London, after obtaining a Ph.D. in Economics from Birkbeck, University of London. His research focuses on understanding the sources and propagation of macroeconomic shocks, the design of monetary and fiscal stabilization policies, and the link between macroeconomic policy and growth in developing economies. Recently, his research has also focused on the effects of climate change on the macroeconomic outcomes of disaster-prone countries.

Mr. Alain Memvuh joined the public sector external audit profession in 2008, as an auditor at SAI Cameroon. Since 2017, he has been Manager Capacity Development at IDI. He has managed the SAIs Fighting Corruption Initiative, and works with francophone sub-Saharan African SAIs. He graduated in law (Yaounde University, 2005) and public administration (Cameroon School of Administration and France School of Public Finance, 2008). He is a Canadian Audit and Accountability Foundation Fellow (CAAF, 2013). He currently supervises the SAIs HR, Ethics and Gender Initiative.

Mr. Marshall Mills has worked at the IMF since 2005, where he has been mission chief for Angola, Madagascar, Seychelles, and Togo in the African Department. He also worked on capital flows, trade, and program conditionality in the Strategy, Policy, and Review Department, and as an economist in the African Department. Before the IMF, he worked at the U.S. Treasury, including as Office Director for the Middle East; OECD; and the U.S. Office of Management and Budget. He holds degrees from the University of North Carolina, Princeton University, and France’s Ecole nationale d’administration.

Mr. Amadou N.R. Sy is division chief at the IMF’s African Department, and Mission Chief for Cameroon. His research interest includes digitalization, fintech, governance, and macro-financial linkages. He is also a Distinguished Advisor to the Africa Growth Initiative (AGI) Group at the Brookings Institution, which he led until January 2017. He holds a Ph.D. in Finance from McGill University and is a CFA charter holder as well as a Financial Risk Manager (GARP).

Mr. Rasmane Ouedraogo is an economist at the IMF’s African Department. Previously, he worked in the IMF’s Statistics Department (Balance of Payments Division) and the World Bank’s Macroeconomics and Fiscal Management Global Practice. His broad research interests relate to development economics and macroeconomics. He received his Doctor of Philosophy in Economics from the University of Auvergne, Clermont Ferrand (France). He holds master’s degrees in International Economics, Development Economics, and Project Management from Clermont School of Economics (France).

Mr. Sebastiaan Pompe has served as a senior counsel at the IMF’s Legal Department since 2017. He previously worked as an academic and a lawyer and managed development projects on law and development. He is a graduate of the University of London (SOAS), Cambridge University (law), and Leiden University, with a Ph.D. in institutional development and corruption. He has published and edited several books and more than 70 articles, including contributions to authoritative encyclopedias on diverse matters (Islamic law, commercial litigation), and set up two journals.

Mr. Jason (Jay) Purcell is an AML/CFT consultant with a particular focus on targeted financial sanctions, risk-based supervision, and the strengthening of AML/CFT regimes in Africa. He was previously a financial sector expert in the IMF’s Financial Integrity Group and a senior policy advisor in the U.S. Treasury Department Office of Terrorist Financing and Financial Crimes.

Mr. Fazeer Rahim is a senior economist with the IMF’s Fiscal Affairs Department. Between 2013 and 2016, he was a PFM advisor at the IMF’s Regional Center for East Africa in Tanzania. He has advised the governments of more than 40 countries on budget reforms, resource revenue management, fiscal transparency, wage bill management, and public investment. He holds a master’s degree from the University of Bordeaux and a Ph.D. in Economics from the University of Birmingham.

Dr. Ruby Randall is a retiree with an IMF career spanning over two decades. She served as the IMF Resident Representative in Malawi and The Gambia and has authored several IMF publications. Before joining the Fund, she worked in economic consulting as a Research Fellow at the Brookings Institution and at the McKinsey Global Institute. She holds an M.Sc. in Economics from LSE, an M.Phil. in Economic Development from Cambridge University, and a Ph.D. in Economics from the University of Maryland.

Mr. Samuele Rosa works as Senior Economist at the International Monetary Fund. He has carried out his career entirely in international organizations. He worked at the European Commission and the European Monetary Institute, involved in the preparatory work related to the establishment of the European single currency, then moving to the European Central Bank until the launch of the Euro. Since 2001 he has been working at the International Monetary Fund, in the African department. He holds an advance degree in economics from Bocconi University (with distinction) and continued his doctoral studies at the University of Frankfurt.

Ms. Hoda Selim is a senior economist at the IMF. Previously, she worked at the Dubai Economic Council, the Economic Research Forum (ERF) in Cairo, and the World Bank’s Cairo Office. Her research focuses on the macroeconomics of oil management and the political economy of development, and on macroeconomic policy, including economic growth and monetary and exchange rate regimes. Her co-edited volumes include Understanding and Avoiding the Oil Curse in the Arab World, published in 2016 by Cambridge University Press, and Institutions and Macroeconomic Policies in Resource-Rich Arab Economies, published in July 2019 by Oxford University Press. Her work has appeared in the Middle East Development Journal. She is a contributor to International Development Ideas, Experience, and Prospects (Oxford University Press 2014) and a research fellow at ERF. She holds a Ph.D. from Sciences Po Paris in France.

Ms. Dominique Simard is a senior economist and Mozambique desk in the IMF’s African Department. Her experience includes countries from West Africa, the Caribbean, North and Central America, Central Asia, and the Middle East. Her IMF publications focus on fiscal policy. She was previously assistant professor of Economics at Rutgers University and visiting assistant professor of International Economics at New York University’s Stern School of Business. Her Ph.D. in Economics is from Queen’s University and her B.Sc. from l’Université de Montréal.

Mr. Nelson Sobrinho, a national of Brazil, is a senior economist in the IMF’s Finance Department. He holds a bachelor’s and master’s degree in Economics from the University of São Paulo, and a Ph.D. in Economics from UCLA. Before joining the IMF, he taught at UCLA and IBMEC School of Management in Brasília and worked for the Central Bank of Brazil. He has several academic publications and started working on governance issues some time ago while at the IMF’s African Department.

Mr. Nicholas Staines, a national of Malta, received his Ph.D. in Economics at the University of Toronto. After a decade at the Universities of Toronto and McGill and in the private sector, he joined the IMF in 1999, where he has worked almost entirely on sub-Saharan African countries. He has held three positions as the IMF’s Resident Representative, including in the Democratic Republic of the Congo during 2015–18, that provided the basis for his contribution to this book.

Ms. Gwénaëlle Suc is a Magistrate of the French Supreme Audit Institution and currently works as General Secretary of the international nonprofit organization Libraries Without Borders, based in Paris. She has been serving at the IMF’s Fiscal Affairs Department as a public financial management (PFM) expert since 2012. Earlier in her career, she worked at the Ministry of Finance in France, specializing in designing and leading PFM reforms. As an economist at the IMF she has led and participated in PEFA, public investment management assessments, and gender budgeting seminars, and has focused on fiscal transparency issues in Africa, the Caribbean region, and Southeast Asia. She graduated from the Ecole Nationale d’Administration (ENA) and holds a master’s degree from Sciences Po in France.

Mrs. Lara Taylor-Pearce is the current Auditor-General of the Republic of Sierra Leone. She is a fellow of the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (UK) and of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Sierra Leone and holds an MBA from the University of Cumbria (UK). Her more than 30-year career spans both the private and public sectors, where she has made a positive impact on auditing and public financial management in Sierra Leone. Since joining Sierra Leone’s public sector in 2000, she has held several senior positions, including technical expert at the Accountant General’s Department and Deputy Auditor-General. She is the former Chair of the Governing Board of the African Region of Supreme Audit Institutions-English Speaking (AFROSAI-E), a council member of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Sierra Leone, a member of the Afro Barometer Board, and a team member of the Chandler Sessions on Integrity and Corruption at the University of Oxford School of Government. She is also the Vice Chair of the INTOSAI Development Initiative Board.

Mr. Vimal Thakoor is a senior economist in the IMF’s Strategy, Policy, and Review (SPR) Department. He has a Ph.D. in Economics from the University of Birmingham (UK) and joined the Economist Program in 2011. He previously worked in the Fiscal Affairs Department, where he covered expenditure policy issues, and the African Department as the desk on Rwanda, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. His research interest focuses mostly on development macroeconomics, with previous work on energy subsidies, inequality, pensions and demographic transitions, structural reforms, and climate change.

Mr. Joel A. Turkewitz is a senior counsel in the IMF’s Legal Department at its headquarters in Washington, DC, where he specializes in anticorruption and rule of law issues. In this capacity, he is involved in elaborating and operationalizing the IMF’s 2018 strengthened governance policy. He joined the IMF recently after a 20-year career working with the World Bank on governance and anticorruption. He has worked and written on anticorruption approaches and experiences and has extensive country experience across Asia and Africa.

Mr. Riaan van Greuning has been a member of the IMF’s Safeguards Assessment Division since 2013. His experience includes assessments of central banks’ governance and control frameworks across all regions of IMF membership. Before joining the IMF, he worked for Deloitte Financial Advisory Services, where he assisted U.S. Government agencies in developing governance and compliance frameworks, including the U.S. Department of Justice, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, and the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. He has a master’s degree in Financial and Logistics Management from the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa, and is a Certified Public Accountant (CPA) and Certified Fraud Examiner (CFE).

Ms. Concepcion Verdugo-Yepes is an African Department senior economist. She has served in both the IMF’s Fiscal Affairs and Legal Departments (2008– 20), where she specialized in fighting corruption. She has led and participated in several PFM and governance and AML/CFT assessments in Africa, Central Asia, Europe, and Central and South America. Her research on criminal activities is cited in academic journals and the international press, and has been widely used in the development of policies to counter money laundering and the financing of terrorism. She led the preparation and delivery of the first IMF training on corruption. She previously worked for 10 years in the private sector, developing public-private partnerships in public investment in Europe and Latin America. She holds a Ph.D. in International Law and Economics from Bocconi University.

Mr. Mauricio Villafuerte is division chief in the IMF Western Hemisphere Department. He specializes in fiscal and monetary policy issues in natural-resource-dependent countries, having worked extensively in oil- and mining-producing countries in Africa (including the Democratic Republic of the Congo) and South America. He has produced several publications on fiscal policy management, including fiscal institutions for resource-rich countries, sovereign wealth funds, and fiscal consolidation strategies. Before joining the IMF, he worked at the Central Bank of Ecuador.

Ms. Arina Viseth is an economist and Togo desk in the IMF’s African department. Her country experience includes Niger, Madagascar, South Sudan, Seychelles, and Uganda. Previously, she was a consultant at the World Bank, where she contributed to the Bank’s World Trade Indicators. Her IMF publications cover a host of topics, including international remittances and migration, the macroeconomic impact of natural disasters, informality, and employment. A Fulbright scholar alumna, she holds a Ph.D. in Economics from the University of Delaware.

Ms. Jing Xie is a research analyst in the IMF’s Institute for Capacity Development, Macro-Modeling and Monetary Division. She joined the IMF in 2020 and has worked in teams delivering training and technical assistance in Nowcasting, Regional Economic Integration, Managing Capital Flows, and Financial Programming and Policies (FPP2.0) in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and the Pacific Islands, and the Caribbean Islands. Previously, she had several years of professional experience in Finance and Economic Consulting in Beijing, Paris, and Washington, DC.

Acknowledgments

The editors would like to thank the authors of the various chapters in the book whose contributions made the completion of the project possible. In particular, the book benefited greatly from the experience that the country teams gained in their discussions with country authorities. Several departments at the IMF also shared their analysis on governance challenges associated with the COVID-19 pandemic on an expedited basis, and this helped incorporate a governance dimension in emergency response settings. Contributions from auditors-general and other external institutions are particularly noteworthy as they ensure that the view in this book extends beyond the IMF. The editors are also grateful to Abebe Aemro Selassie, Roger Nord, Catriona Purfield, Annalisa Fedelino, Vivek Arora, and Zeine Zeidane, who gave critical strategic input at various stages of the project. Gemma Diaz, Patricia Loo, and Joe Procopio, from the Communications Department of the IMF, provided excellent guidance throughout the editing and publication process. Kevin Putnam did an outstanding job to improve the format and readability of the book. The editors also would like to highlight a few individual acknowledgments:

Monique Newiak, Resident Representative for Sierra Leone, would like to thank her co-editors and co-authors and other colleagues involved in the project for the fruitful collaboration. She is particularly grateful to the external contributors, such as the Auditor-General of Sierra Leone and the former Auditor-General of Ghana for providing insights into their experiences, and to INTOSAI, which contributed a wider perspective on international audit issues. She would like to thank the African department for its flexibility in support of this project and hopes that the work will trigger a good conversation with various stakeholders across the region and offer input into future research topics.

Alex Segura-Ubiergo is grateful to the members of the Governance Group in the African Department, Marshall Mills, Eddy Gemayel, Arina Viseth, Lars Engstrom, and Concha Verdugo-Yepes, as well as to Paolo Mauro, Chairman of the Governance Taskforce at the IMF. Alex has been a member of the IMF’s Interdepartmental Group on Governance since its inception and participated in the work that led to the New Framework for Enhanced Engagement on Governance. The idea for this book started in a conversation between Monique Newiak and Alex Segura-Ubiergo about how the African department could leverage the work of the IMF in the area of governance to draw lessons from and for the sub-Saharan African Region.

Abdoul Aziz Wane wishes to thank his co-editors and co-author for the excellent collaboration. He is grateful to all the authors for their patience and professionalism in the editing process. He is confident their efforts will provide sub-Saharan African policymakers the tools and a framework to promote good governance in their respective countries.