Accountability

• central bank governance and, 242–245, 244–245f

• COVID-19 pandemic and, 195–206, 261

• governance impact on economic growth and, 40, 41t

• measuring governance and, 30

• supreme audit institutions and, 209

Acemoglu, Daron, 2, 266

Africa Integrity Indicators, 69

African Organisation of Public Accounts Committee (AFROPAC), 221n16

African Organisation of Supreme Audit Institutions (AFROSAI), 221–222, 221n16

African Union, 1–2, 27

• Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption, 133

Afrobarometer, 2, 182b, 294, 295

Ahamada, Ibrahim, 185

Aldcroft, Martin, 209

Allen, Richard, 195

Alm, J., 18n12

AML/CFT framework

• in Botswana, 63–67, 64–66f

• CEMAC and, 90, 97–100

• in Comoros, 185, 187, 191–192

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 165–166

• in fragile country settings, 133–134

• governance dividend and, 31, 42

• in Madagascar, 174b, 181, 183

• in Nigeria, 84–85

• politically exposed persons and, 97, 98

• in Republic of Congo, 99, 111b, 112

• in Rwanda, 63–67, 64–66f

• in Seychelles, 58, 59, 63–67, 64–66f

Andersen, J., 18

Andreoni, Antonio, 142, 144

Angola

• central bank governance in, 240

• governance reforms in, 6

• state-owned enterprise corruption in, 22, 22n15

• supreme audit institutions in, 216, 218, 219

Anticorruption reforms. See also Governance dividend

• in Benin, 132

• in Botswana, 67–70, 68–69f

• in Burkina Faso, 139

• in Central African Republic, 139

• in Comoros, 185, 186–188, 191–192

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 159–167

• digitalization and, 267–270, 268f

• extractive industries and, 70

• in fragile country settings, 131–133

• in Gabon, 139

• in Guinea, 139

• in Indonesia, 143

• in Kenya, 139

• in Liberia, 139, 220

• in Madagascar, 173–177, 174b, 174f, 175t, 180–182, 181f

• in Malawi, 139

• in Mali, 139

• in Mozambique, 139

• in Nigeria, 76, 82–86, 132

• in Republic of Congo, 111b, 119–121, 120–121f, 139

• in Rwanda, 67–70, 68–69f

• in Seychelles, 59, 67–70, 68–69f

• in Sierra Leone, 139

• in Somalia, 139, 144

• supreme audit institutions and, 211–212, 220–223, 224–225b

• in Tanzania, 139

• in Uganda, 139

• in Zimbabwe, 132

Arda, Atilla, 243, 246

Armenia, COVID-19 pandemic funds in, 198

Asset declarations

• anticorruption reforms and, 42

• in Comoros, 186–187, 192

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 167

• digitalization and, 268

• in fragile countries, 139

• in Nigeria, 82

• by public officers in Nigeria, 84

• in Republic of Congo, 122

• supreme audit institutions and, 220–222

Assoumani, Azali, 185

Auditing. See also Supreme audit institutions

• central bank governance and, 240–241, 242–245, 244–245f

• compliance audits, 213, 225–229, 227–228b

• COVID-19 pandemic funds and, 196, 205–206

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 161

• emergency funds compliance audits, 225–229, 227–228b

• financial audits, 213

• International Standards on Auditing (ISA), 242–243, 242n4

• in Madagascar, 177

• in Nigeria, 81–82

• performance audits, 213

• public financial management and, 53–54, 54f

• revenue administration and, 50–51, 50f

• third-party audits, 219, 219n13

Banking. See Financial sector oversight

Bank of Botswana, 56, 58, 59, 67

Basel Committee Core Principles for Effective Banking Supervision, 55, 56, 165

Baum, A., 24

Benin

• anticorruption reforms in, 132

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds in, 205

Benlamine, Mokhtar, 185

Bertelsmann Transformation Index, 67

BIANCO. See Bureau Indépendant Anti-Corruption

Big data, 251–252, 252n2. See also Digitalization

Botswana, 47–71

• AML/CFT framework in, 63–67, 64–66f

• anticorruption reforms in, 67–70, 68–69f

• central bank governance in, 57–59, 58f

• COVID-19 pandemic funds in, 7, 203, 204

• Directorate on Corruption and Economic Crime (DCEC), 68

• extractive industries in, 70

• financial sector oversight in, 55–57, 56f

• Financial Stability Committee, 56

• fiscal governance in, 49–55, 50f, 52f, 54f

• governance dividend in, 1, 6, 42

• judiciary in, 62

• market regulation in, 55–57, 56f, 59–61, 60–61f

• Non-bank Financial Institutions Regulatory Authority, 67

• public financial management in, 51–55, 52f, 54f

• Pula Fund, 70

• revenue administration in, 49–51, 50f

• rule of law in, 62–63, 62f

• Whistle Blowing Act, 68

Brazil, COVID-19 pandemic funds in, 198

Bribery

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 158

• firms expecting to pay, 11–12, 12f

• in Nigeria, 76

• in public spending, 19

• in Republic of Congo, 118–119, 118nn12–13

• in taxation system, 18n12

Bruinshoofd, Allard, 257

Budget process

• in Botswana, 54–55, 54f

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 94

• in Comoros, 188

• COVID- 19 pandemic and, 195, 200

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 160

• extrabudgetary entities (EBEs) and, 198–202, 200n3, 201f, 270n24

• in fragile country settings, 143

• governance dividend and, 32

• in Madagascar, 176, 180

• in Nigeria, 79–80

• public financial management and, 54–55, 54f

• in Republic of Congo, 114–115

• in Rwanda, 54–55, 54f

• in Seychelles, 54–55, 54f

• supreme audit institutions and, 210

Bureau Indépendant Anti-Corruption, Madagascar (BIANCO), 170, 172, 174f, 180–181

Burkina Faso

• anticorruption reforms in, 139

• institutional frameworks in, 259

• supreme audit institutions in, 221

Burundi, supreme audit institutions in, 220

Business environment. See also Market regulation

• in Botswana, 59, 60f

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 166–167

• digitalization and, 257, 263

• governance dividend and, 30, 32

• market regulations and, 59, 60f

• in Republic of Congo, 111b

• in Rwanda, 59, 60f

• in Seychelles, 59, 60f

Cadbury Committee (UK), 233

Cameron Commission, 140, 140n7

Cameroon

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 93f, 95, 143

• Commission on State Fragility, Growth and Development, 140, 140n7

• as fragile state, 129n5

• oil industry in, 102n5, 103–104

• supreme audit institutions in, 222, 223

Camos, J. Edgardo, 116

Cape Verde, supreme audit institutions in, 220

Cardoso, Julia, 233

Cash transfers of COVID- 19 pandemic relief funds, 197, 256

CBRs (correspondent banking relationships), 57

CEMAC (Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa), 89–107

• AML/CFT framework, 90, 97–100

• Directive on Public Accounting, 94

• extractive sector governance

• framework, 100–106, 101b, 102f

• on fragile country budgetary processes, 143

• governance reforms in, 7

• public financial management framework, 90–96, 92t, 93f

• Republic of Congo oil sector and, 115

Central African Banking Commission (COBAC), 97–98, 99–100

Central African Republic

• anticorruption reforms in, 139

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 93f, 95

• oil industry in, 103

Central bank governance, 233–249. See also specific central banks

• accountability and, 242–245, 244–245f

• in Botswana, 57–59, 58f

• as channel for corruption, 15

• in Comoros, 192

• COVID-19 pandemic and, 247–248

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 156, 164–165

• external audits, 242–245, 244–245f

• governance dividend and, 32

• independence of central bank, 236–237

• internal audits, 240–241

• in Madagascar, 177

• role of, 235–238, 236f

• in Rwanda, 57–59, 58f

• safeguards assessment trends, 238–242, 238–242f

• in Seychelles, 57–59

• supreme audit institutions and, 219, 219n14

• transparency and, 245–247, 246–247f

Chad

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 93f, 95, 99, 143

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds in, 202, 205

• institutional frameworks in, 259

• oil industry in, 103

• supreme audit institutions in, 222

Chile, governance dividend in, 42

China

• digitalization in, 254

• supreme audit institutions in, 226

Chronically fragile countries, defined, 128b, 148. See also Fragile country settings

Cilliers, J., 129

Civil service

• in Comoros, 186, 192–193

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 155, 159, 159f

• digitalization and, 269

• in fragile country settings, 7

• in Madagascar, 173, 180

• in Rwanda, 18

Civil society organizations (CSOs)

• anticorruption reforms and, 14

• COVID-19 pandemic and, 3

• in fragile country settings, 143

• in Madagascar, 177–178

• supreme audit institutions and, 223, 224b

COBAC (Central African Banking Commission), 97–98, 99–100

Colombia, COVID-19 pandemic funds in, 198

Comoros, 185–193

• AML/CFT framework in, 185, 187, 191–192

• anticorruption reforms in, 185, 186–188, 191–192

• budget process in, 188

• central bank governance in, 192

• civil service in, 192–193

• Financial Intelligence Service, 187

• Financial Research Service, 187–188

• financial sector oversight in, 192

• governance reforms in, 7

• judiciary in, 191

• National Anti-Corruption and Prevention Strategy, 186

• National Commission of Prevention and Fight against Corruption, 187, 191

• National Committee to Fight against Money Laundering and Terrorism Financing, 187

• National Directorate for Controlling Public Contracts and Public Service Delegation, 188

• procurement in, 188

• public financial management in, 186, 188–191, 189f, 190t

• Public Procurement Regulatory Authority, 188

• rule of law in, 185, 191

• state- owned enterprises in, 186, 191

• supreme audit institutions in, 222

• tax compliance in, 189, 191

COMTRADE database, 102n5

Congo. See Democratic Republic of Congo; Republic of Congo

Control of Corruption Index, 13, 13f, 15f, 17, 33

Convention against Corruption (UN), 98–99, 132–133, 139–140, 167, 170, 221–222

Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (UN), 187

Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption (African Union), 133

Correspondent banking relationships (CBRs), 57

Corruption. See also Anticorruption reforms; Bribery

• central bank governance and operations channel for, 15

• channels for, 14–16

• Convention against Corruption (UN), 98–99, 132–133, 139–140, 167, 170, 221–222

• Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption (African Union), 133

• financial sector oversight channel for, 15–16, 15n9

• fiscal channel for, 14–15, 15f

• fiscal costs of, 16–24, 17f, 19f, 21f, 23–24f

• in fragile states, 141–146

• in Madagascar, 172b

• market regulation channel for, 16

• policy debate shaped by high- level cases, 135–136b

• rule of law channel for, 16

• of tax officials, 298–300, 298f, 299t, 300f

Corruption Perceptions Index

• in Botswana, 48n1

• in Comoros, 189f

• COVID-19 pandemic and, 261

• in fragile countries, 126, 131f

• governance dividend and, 2, 7, 13, 28–29, 28f, 33, 44

• in Madagascar, 182b

• in Republic of Congo, 110, 110f

• in Rwanda, 48n1

• in Seychelles, 48n1

Côte d’Ivoire

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds in, 203, 204, 271

• supreme audit institutions in, 218, 219

Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA)

• on Comoros, 189f

• on Democratic Republic of Congo, 156, 157f

• on fragile countries, 127, 128n3

• on Madagascar, 180

COVID-19 pandemic. See also specific countries

• accountability in emergency response funds for, 195–206

• cash transfers to vulnerable groups, 197, 256

• central bank governance and, 247–248

• corruption and, 2–3

• digitalization innovations during, 256–257, 257f

• emergency funds compliance audits, 226–229

• extrabudgetary entities (EBEs) and, 198–202, 200n3, 201f, 270n24

• in fragile countries, 126–127, 146

• governance in emergency context of, 7–8, 196–198, 197f

• importance of good governance during, 1, 2

• institutional frameworks and, 260–261, 260–261f

• lessons learned, 202–206

• procurement and, 196–197, 197f

• public financial management and, 195–206

• supreme audit institutions and, 197, 198

CPIA. See Country Policy and Institutional Assessment

Crisis response. See COVID-19

pandemic; Ebola crisis; Emergency response to crises

CSOs. See Civil society organizations

DAI (Digital Adoption Index), 296–297

Democratic Republic of Congo, 153–167

• AML/CFT framework in, 165–166

• anticorruption reforms in, 159–167

• business environment in, 166–167

• central bank (BCC), 164–165

• central bank governance in, 156, 164–165

• Court of Auditors, 161

• economic growth in, 154

• extractive industries in, 154–155, 163–164

• financial sector oversight in, 165–166

• as fragile state, 155

• Gécamines, 163, 164

• governance indicators for, 156–159, 157f, 158t, 159f

• governance reforms in, 7

• judiciary in, 166

• market regulation in, 166–167

• public financial management in, 160–162

• rule of law in, 166

• tax system in, 162–163

Denmark, tax compliance in, 267

Designated nonfinancial businesses and professions (DNFBP), 85

Digital Adoption Index (DAI), 296–297

Digitalization, 251–305

• anticorruption reforms and, 267–270, 268f

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds and, 205, 206

• data innovations and, 253–266

• e-government trends, 254–257, 255–257f

• government success in promoting, 302–303, 304t

• institutional frameworks and, 257–261, 259–261f

• internet shutdowns and, 302, 303t

• knowledge problem of, 252, 252n3

• macroeconomic stability via, 266–272

• public financial management and, 270–272, 271f

• public service delivery and, 252n2, 256, 270, 294

• tax compliance and, 252, 267–270, 268f, 293–305

DIGNAR model, 119, 119nn15–16

Djankov, S., 16, 267»17

DNFBP (designated nonfinancial businesses and professions), 85

Doing Business Indicators (World Bank), 59

Domelevo, Daniel, 209, 224b

Domestic systematically important banks (DSIBs), 57

Ease of Doing Business Index, 257, 263

East Asia and Pacific. See also specific countries

• e-government trends in, 255, 255–256f

• institutional frameworks in, 258, 260

Eastern and Southern Africa Anti- Money Laundering Group (ESAAMLG), 63, 67, 187

EBEs. See Extrabudgetary entities

Ebola crisis

• emergency funds compliance audits, 226–229, 227–228b

• Sierra Leone’s response to, 6, 197, 227–228b

Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa. See CEMAC

Economic growth. See also Inclusive growth

• corruption’s impact on, 4, 252

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 154

• digitalization and, 266–272

• governance and, 30, 33–34b

• in Republic of Congo, 119–121, 120–121f

E-Filing Index, 296

E-Government Development Index (EGDI), 254

E-Government Index (EGI), 262–263, 262f, 271, 273, 273t

EITI. See Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative

Emergency response to crises, 195–229. See also COVID-19 pandemic; Ebola crisis

• accountability for emergency funds, 195–206

• supreme audit instititutions and, 209–229

Emerging market economies

• public spending and investment in, 19–22, 19f, 21f

• tax compliance in, 17–19, 17f

Engstrom, Lars, 169

Eom, Tae Ho, 265

Equatorial Guinea

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 92, 93f, 99

• oil industry in, 103–104

• supreme audit institutions in, 218

ESAAMLG (Eastern and Southern Africa Anti-Money Laundering Group), 63, 67, 187

Eskom, 22

Estonia, governance dividend in, 42

Ethiopia

• as fragile state, 129n5

• supreme audit institutions in, 218

Europe and Central Asia. See also specific countries

• e-government trends in, 255, 255–256f

• institutional frameworks in, 258, 260

Extrabudgetary entities (EBEs), 198–202, 200n3, 201f, 270n24

Extractive industries. See also Oil industry anticorruption reforms and, 70

• CEMAC’s governance framework for, 100–106, 101b, 102f

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 154–155, 163–164

• revenue collection affected by corruption in, 18

• state-owned enterprise corruption in, 23–24, 24f

Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI)

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 103–104

• Democratic Republic of Congo and, 164

• fragile country settings and, 143

• Nigeria and, 78, 80, 83

• Republic of Congo and, 115

• Seychelles and, 70

Extremely fragile countries, defined,

128b, 148. See also Fragile country settings

Fayad, Dominique, 169n1

Financial Action Task Force (FATF). See also AML/CFT framework

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 97, 99

• Democratic Republic of Congo and, 165–166

• fragile country settings and, 133

• Madagascar and, 183

• Nigeria and, 83, 84

• on politically exposed persons, 116n4

Financial sector oversight

• in Botswana, 55–57, 56f

• as channel for corruption, 15–16, 15n9

• in Comoros, 192

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 165–166

• governance dividend and, 32

• in Nigeria, 84–85, 87

• in Rwanda, 55–57, 56f

• in Seychelles, 55–57, 56f

Finland, governance dividend in, 5

Fragile country settings, 125–150. See also specific countries

• AML/CFT framework in, 133–134

• anticorruption reforms in, 131–133

• categories of fragility, 127, 128b, 148

• governance dividend in, 1, 7

• inclusive growth in, 142–144

• international agency policy debates on, 133–141, 135–136b, 139t, 144–146

• political economy factors in, 141, 142

• societal fragmentation in, 137

• in Sub-Saharan Africa, 127–129, 130–131f

• tax compliance in, 125, 126f

France, COVID- 19 pandemic funds in, 198

Fredriksen, Camilla, 209

French Agency for Development, 55n9

French, Alice, 209

Gabon

• anticorruption reforms in, 139

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 93f, 95, 143

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds in, 271

• supreme audit institutions in, 218

The Gambia, supreme audit institutions in, 216

Georgia

• governance dividend in, 42

• revenue collection affected by corruption in, 18

Ghana

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds in, 7, 203, 204, 205

• supreme audit institutions in, 220, 224–225b

GIABA (Intergovernmental Action Group against Money Laundering in West Africa), 187, 191–192

Giavazzi, Francesco, 33

Global Competitiveness Indicators (World Economic Forum), 59

Global Integrity Indicators, 158–159, 159f, 216, 216n9

Global Peace Index, 129n5

Global SAI Stocktaking Report 2017 (IDI), 216

Governance dividend, 1–10. See also specific countries

• AML/CFT framework and, 31, 42 channels for, 31–32

• macroeconomic benefits, 4–5, 11–24

• measuring governance, 29–30, 31f

• pathways to, 27–45

Government effectiveness. See also Public service delivery

• COVID-19 pandemic and, 261

• governance impact on economic growth and, 40, 41t

• measuring, 29–30, 31f

Granger causality, 265–266, 265n16, 275, 276–279t

Guinea

• anticorruption reforms in, 139

• corruption cases in, 135b

• Ebola crisis in, 227b

• supreme audit institutions in, 218

Guinea-Bissau, supreme audit institutions in, 216, 219

Gupta, Raveesha, 185

Hamilton, Alexander, 44

Hammadi, Amine, 27n1

Hammer, C., 44

Hausman test, 265n15

Honduras, COVID-19 pandemic funds in, 198, 205, 271

Human Capital Index (HCI), 254, 269

Human Development Index (HDI), 262, 262f

Hungary, procurement process in, 20

Ibrahim Index of African Governance, 68, 118, 126, 156, 157f, 217

ICA (Investment Climate Assessment), 118–119

Iceland, governance dividend in, 5

ICRG. See International Country Risk Guide

ICT. See Information and communication technologies

IEO (Independent Evaluation Office), 134, 140, 140n8

IFRS. See International Financial Reporting Standards

Imboulou Dam Project (Republic of Congo), 118n9

IMF (International Monetary Fund)

• CEMAC and, 89, 95

• Code of Good Practices in Monetary and Financial Policies, 245

• on corruption’s effect on revenue collection, 17–18, 75–76

• COVID- 19 pandemic and, 3, 8, 270n24

• DIGNAR model and, 119, 119nn15–16

• ELRIC framework, 234, 235f, 238, 240f

• on financial sector oversight framework, 55n10

• Fiscal Transparency Code, 80

• on fragile countries, 129, 129n5, 134, 138–139, 139t, 144, 147

• governance framework, 1, 3, 3n3, 160

• Independent Evaluation Office (IEO), 134, 140, 140n8

• on market regulation, 55n10

• “Proposed Framework for Enhanced Fund Engagement,” 134, 136, 140

• Public Investment Management Assessment, 117n8

• Republic of Congo oil sector and, 115

• Safeguards Assessments Policy, 234

• SAI engagement with, 218–220, 219f

• “Staff Guidance Note on the Fund’s Engagement with Countries in Fragile Situations,” 138

Inclusive growth

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 106

• corruption’s impact on, 4, 14, 48

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 154

• digitalization and, 252

• in fragile country settings, 127, 137, 142–144

• governance dividend and, 32

Independent Evaluation Office (IEO), 134, 140, 140n8

India, public spending governance in, 20

Indonesia, anticorruption reforms in, 143

Inflation, 30, 165

Information and communication technologies (ICT), 8, 252, 267, 302–303, 304t. See also Digitalization

Institutional frameworks. See also specific countries

• COVID-19 pandemic and, 260–261, 260–261f

• digitalization and, 257–261, 259–261f

• regulatory quality and, 258

• rule of law and, 258, 260

• for supreme audit institutions, 212–214, 220–222

Institutional Profiles Database (IPD), 55n9, 57

Intergovernmental Action Group against Money Laundering in West Africa (GIABA), 187, 191–192

International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, 155

International Country Risk Guide (ICRG), 28, 28f, 33, 40, 44

International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), 242, 245n9, 246–247, 246n12, 247f

International Organization of supreme audit institutions (INTOSAI), 210, 211–212, 220, 221, 221n15

International Standards of Supreme Audit Institutions (ISSAI), 243n7

International Standards on Auditing (ISA), 242–243, 242n4

International Telecommunications Union, 8

Internet shutdowns, 302, 303t

Investment Climate Assessment (ICA), 118–119

IPD (Institutional Profiles Database), 55n9, 57

ISA (International Standards on Auditing), 242–243, 242n4

Isomorphic mimicry, 141

ISSAI (International Standards of

Supreme Audit Institutions), 243n7

JIRAMA (Madagascar SOE), 173

Judiciary

• anticorruption reforms and, 16

• in Botswana, 62

• in Comoros, 191

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 166

• in Madagascar, 172, 172n5, 178–179, 178f, 181, 181n10

• in Nigeria, 87

• in Rwanda, 62

• in Seychelles, 62

• supreme audit institutions and, 214, 221–222, 224

Kabila, Joseph, 154

Kabila, Laurent, 153

Kabwe, George, 233

Kaufmann, Daniel, 33, 182b

Kenya

• anticorruption reforms in, 139

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds in, 7, 203, 204, 205, 228

• public spending corruption in, 21

• supreme audit institutions in, 216

Khan, Mushtaq, 142, 144

Kintélé National Stadium (Republic of Congo), 118n9

Kleven, Henrik Jacobsen, 267

Klitgaard, Robert, 264n14

Kraay, A., 33, 182b

Labor market regulation, 60, 60f

Lando, Sabrina, 89

Latin America and Caribbean. See also specific countries

• COVID-19 pandemic funds in, 198

• e-government trends in, 255, 255–256f

• governance impact on economic growth in, 35, 37f, 38t

• institutional frameworks in, 258, 259

Leost, Gabriel, 169n1

Lesotho Highlands Water Project, 21

Lewis-Faupel, Sean, 270n23

Liberia

• anticorruption reforms in, 139, 220

• central bank governance in, 15n8

• Ebola crisis in, 227b

• governance reforms in, 6

• supreme audit institutions in, 220, 225b

Lourenço, João, 22»15

Low-income countries. See also specific countries

• corruption’s effect on public spending in, 19–22, 19f, 21f

• corruption’s effect on revenue collection in, 17–19, 17f

• governance indicators for, 170, 171f

• public spending in, 110

• supreme audit institutions in, 215

Madagascar, 169–183

• AML/CFT framework in, 174b, 181, 183

• anticorruption reforms in, 173–177, 174b, 174f, 175t, 180–182, 181f

• budget process in, 176, 180

• central bank governance in, 177

• Chaîne Pénale Economique et Anti-Corruption (CPEAC), 170, 172

• corruption taxonomy in, 172b

• governance reforms in, 7

• informal economy in, 171

• institutional framework in, 172

• judiciary in, 172, 172n5, 178–179, 178f, 181, 181n10

• Ministry of Finance, 176

• National Public Procurement Commission, 177

• National Strategy to Fight Corruption, 173–174, 177

• political culture in, 171

• public financial management in, 173, 174–175, 175t, 180

• public spending and investment in, 176

• rule of law in, 178–179, 178f

• tax compliance in, 173, 175, 175t, 178

• Union of Malagasy Judges, 172n5

Malawi

• anticorruption reforms in, 139

• “cashgate” scandal in, 20, 135b

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds in, 228

• supreme audit institutions in, 219

Maldives, COVID-19 pandemic funds in, 198

Mali

• anticorruption reforms in, 139

• corruption cases in, 135b

• institutional frameworks in, 259

Market regulation

• in Botswana, 55–57, 56f

• as channel for corruption, 16

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 166–167

• of labor market, 60, 60f

• in Republic of Congo, 111b

• rule of law and, 60–61, 61f

• in Rwanda, 55–57, 56f

• in Seychelles, 55–57, 56f

Martinez-Vazquez, J., 18n12

Mason, P., 138n6

Mauritania, institutional frameworks in, 259

Mauritius

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds in, 7, 203, 203n4, 204, 205, 272

• e-government in, 255

Mauro, P., 13

Mbeki, Tabo, 2

McClellan, C, 18»12

Medas, Paulo, 11

Melina, Giovanni, 109, 119

Memvuh, Alain, 209

MENAAP. See Middle East, North Africa, Afghanistan, Pakistan region

Messner, J. J., 129»5

Microfinance institutions (MFIs), 56

Middle East, North Africa, Afghanistan, Pakistan region (MENAAP). See also specific countries

• corruption and governance perceptions in, 28–29, 28f

• e-government trends in, 255, 255–256f, 269

• governance impact on economic growth in, 35, 37f, 38t

• institutional frameworks in, 258, 259

Mills, Marshall, 27, 169n1

Mobutu, Joseph, 153, 163

Money laundering. See AML/CFT framework

Morocco, COVID-19 pandemic funds in, 202, 205

Mozambique

• anticorruption reforms in, 139

• central bank governance in, 240

• corruption cases in, 135b

• fiscal costs of corruption in, 16

• as fragile state, 129n5

• supreme audit institutions in, 216

NAPAMC (Nigeria Petroleum Assets Management Company), 83b

Natural Resource Governance Indicators, 164

Newiak, Monique, 1, 209, 227 b

New Zealand

• governance dividend in, 5

• institutional framework in, 261

Niger

• as fragile state, 129n5

• institutional frameworks in, 259

Nigeria, 75–87

• Administration of Criminal Justice Act, 86

• AML/CFT framework in, 84–85

• anticorruption reforms in, 7, 76, 82–86, 132

• Chartered Institute of Bankers of Nigeria (CIBN), 84

• Code of Conduct Bureau, 84

• Companies and Allied Matters Act, 83b

• Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC), 85, 86

• Economic Recovery and Growth Plan (ERGP), 76, 76, 86, 86

• Federal Inland Revenue Service, 82

• Fiscal Responsibility Act, 79, 80, 83b

• as fragile state, 129n5

• Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Ofenses Commission (ICPC), 85, 86, 132

• judiciary in, 87

• Ministry of Finance, 81–82, 83b, 87

• National Anti-Corruption Strategy, 76

• National Bureau of Statistics, 76

• Nigerian Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI), 78, 78n4, 80

• Nigerian Financial Intelligence Unit (NFIU), 84, 85

• Petroleum Industry Governance Bill Act, 82, 83b, 86

• politically exposed persons in, 84

• Public Complaints Commission, 132

• Public Procurement Act, 83b

Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), 76, 78–82, 78n3, 86

Nigeria Petroleum Assets Management Company (NAPAMC), 83b

Nigeria Stock Exchange, 81

North, Douglas C., 2

Norway, governance dividend in, 5

OBS. See Open Budget Survey

Observatory for Monitoring Corruption and Professional Ethics, 167

OECD

• Corporate Governance Factbook, 233

• on corruption as main concern for citizens, 2

• on Democratic Republic of Congo extractive industries, 155

• on fragile countries, 125–127, 128n2, 136, 139, 140, 146, 147–148

• on governance, 234

• New Deal Agreement on Fragile Countries, 136

• public-integrity system recommendations, 1

• States of Fragility reports, 127

OHADA (Organization for the Harmonization of Business Laws in Africa), 167

Oil industry. See also Extractive industries

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 90, 96, 100–106, 101b, 102f

• concession systems and, 100, 101b

• in Nigeria, 77, 78–82, 87

• production-sharing agreements and, 100–101, 101b, 112–114, 113f, 115

• in Republic of Congo, 109–110, 112–116, 113–114f, 116f

• state-owned enterprise corruption in, 23–24, 24f

Olken, Benjamin A., 266

Online Services Index (OSI), 254

Open Budget Survey (OBS)

• on Botswana, 54–55, 54f

• on Comoros, 189f, 191

• on digitalization, 296

• on Rwanda, 54–55, 54f

• on Seychelles, 54–55, 54f

• on supreme audit institutions, 215

Ouedraogo, Rasmane, 293

Oxford Stringency Index, 260, 260f

Pakistan, COVID-19 pandemic funds in, 205

Pande, Rohini, 266

Paradise Papers, 155

PCAs (post clearance audits), 175–176

PEFA. See Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability Framework

PEPs. See Politically exposed persons

Peru, COVID-19 pandemic funds in, 198

PFM. See Public financial management

Philippines, COVID-19 pandemic funds in, 198

PIMA (Public Investment Management Assessment), 117n8, 271, 271n25

Politically exposed persons (PEPs)

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 97, 98

• defined, 116»4

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 164

• in Nigeria, 84

• in Republic of Congo, 116, 116f, 117

Pompe, Sebastiaan, 125, 209

Post clearance audits (PCAs), 175–176

PPPs. See Public-private partnerships

Pradham, Sanjay, 116

Procurement. See also Public financial management

• anticorruption reforms and, 20

• in Botswana, 52–53, 52f

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 94

• in Comoros, 188

• COVID-19 pandemic funds and, 196–197, 197f

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 160–161

• digitalization and, 270–272, 270n23, 271f

• in Madagascar, 177

• in Republic of Congo, 118

• in Rwanda, 52–53, 52f

• in Seychelles, 52–53, 52f

Production-sharing agreements (PSAs), 100–101, 101 b, 112–114, 113/, 115

Property rights

• in Botswana, 60, 60f

• in Comoros, 191

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 166

• in Rwanda, 60, 60f

• in Seychelles, 60, 60f

PSAs. See Production-sharing agreements

Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability (PEFA) Framework

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 94–95

• on Comoros, 191

• fragile country settings and, 135b

• on Madagascar, 173

• methodology for, 49nn4–5

• on supreme audit institutions, 217, 217n11

Public financial management (PFM). See also Budget process

• in Botswana, 51–55, 52f, 53n8, 54f

• CEMAC governance framework for, 90–96, 92t, 93f

• in Comoros, 186, 188–191, 189f, 190t

• corruption’s impact on, 4, 5, 14, 19–22, 19f, 21f

• COVID-19 pandemic and, 195–206

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 160–162

• digitalization and, 256

• efficiency of, 32

• in emerging market economies, 19–22, 19f, 21f

• in fragile countries, 135b, 142

• governance dividend and, 32

• investment efficiency, 21, 21n13

• in Madagascar, 173, 174–175, 175t, 176, 180

• in Republic of Congo, 110, 111b, 117–119

• in Rwanda, 51–55, 52f, 53n8, 54f

• in Seychelles, 51–55, 52f, 53n8, 54f

Public-private partnerships (PPPs)

• in Comoros, 187, 188

• in fragile country settings, 145–146

• in Madagascar, 176

• in Republic of Congo, 117

Public service delivery

• in Botswana, 51, 52f, 53

• COVID- 19 pandemic and, 2, 206

• digitalization and, 252n2, 256, 270, 294

• in fragile county settings, 142

• governance dividend and, 6

• in Madagascar, 177

• public financial management and, 49n4, 51

• in Republic of Congo, 117–119

• in Rwanda, 51, 52f, 53

• in Seychelles, 51, 52f, 53

Public spending. See Public financial management

Pula Fund (Botswana), 70

Rahim, Fazeer, 195, 209, 227b

Randall, Ruby, 185

Random Effect Model, 265n15

Regulatory quality. See also Market regulation

• governance impact on economic growth and, 40, 41t

• institutional frameworks and, 258

• measuring, 29–30, 31f

Rent-seeking, 5, 12, 12n2, 114

Republic of Congo, 109–122

• AML/CFT framework in, 99, 111b, 112

• anticorruption reforms in, 111b, 119–121, 120–121f, 139

• business environment in, 111b

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 93f, 95, 99, 143

• Commission Nationale de Lutte Contre la Corruption (CNLCFF), 111b

• economic growth in, 119–121, 120–121f

• governance reforms in, 7

• Hydrocarbons Code, 112, 114

• market regulation in, 111b

• Ministry of Finance, 114–115

• oil industry in, 102n5, 103–104, 112–116, 113–114f, 116f

• Public Procurement Regulatory Authority, 118

• public spending and investment in, 117–119

• Report on Governance and

• Corruption: Republic of Congo (2017), 111–112, 111b, 117n7

• supreme audit institutions in, 217, 218

Revenue collection. See Tax compliance

Rosa, Samuele, 89

Roy, Pallavi, 142, 144

Rule of law

• in Botswana, 62–63, 62f

• as channel for corruption, 16

• in Comoros, 185, 191

• COVID-19 pandemic and, 261

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 166

• in fragile country settings, 138

• governance impact on economic growth and, 40, 41t

• institutional frameworks and, 258, 260

• in Madagascar, 178–179, 178f

• market regulation and, 60–61, 61f

• measuring governance and, 29–30, 31f

• property rights and, 60, 60f, 166, 191

• in Rwanda, 62–63, 62f

• in Seychelles, 62–63, 62f

• tax compliance and, 269n19

Rwanda, 47–71

• AML/CFT framework in, 63–67, 64–66f

• anticorruption reforms in, 67–70, 68–69f

• central bank governance in, 57–59, 58f

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds in, 198

• e-government in, 257

• financial sector oversight in, 55–57, 56f

• fiscal governance in, 49–55, 50f, 52f, 54f

• as fragile state, 129n5

• governance dividend in, 1, 5, 6

• judiciary in, 62

• market regulation in, 55–57, 56f, 59–61, 60–61f

• National Bank of Rwanda (BNR), 58, 59

• public financial management in, 51–55, 52f, 54f

• revenue administration in, 49–51, 50f

• revenue collection affected by

• corruption in, 18

• rule of law in, 62–63, 62f

• supreme audit institutions in, 219

Santiago Principles, 70

São Tomé and Príncipe, central bank governance in, 240

Schacter, Mark, 138n6

Segura-Ubiergo, Alex, 1

Selim, Hoda, 109

Senegal, COVID- 19 pandemic funds in, 202, 205

Sequeira, S., 16

Service delivery. See Public service delivery

Seychelles, 47–71

• AML/CFT framework in, 58, 59, 63–67, 64–66f

• anticorruption reforms in, 59, 67–70, 68–69f

• Benefcial Ownership Act, 70

• central bank governance in, 57–59

• Central Bank of Seychelles (CBS), 58–59

• economic growth in, 48, 48n2

• extractive industries in, 70

• Financial Institutions Act, 58

• financial sector oversight in, 55–57, 56f

• Financial Sector Stability Act, 57

• fiscal governance in, 49–55, 50f, 52f, 54f

• governance dividend in, 1, 6

• judiciary in, 62

• market regulation in, 55–57, 56f, 59–61, 60–61f

• Public Enterprise Monitoring Committee Act, 53

• public financial management in, 51–55, 52f, 54f

• Public Officers’ Ethics Commission, 69

• revenue administration in, 49–51, 50f

• rule of law in, 62–63, 62f

Shah, Anwar, 138n6

Shim, Dong Chul, 265

Sierra Leone

• anticorruption reforms in, 139

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds in, 198, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 228

• Ebola funds compliance audits in, 226–229, 227–228b

• e-government in, 257

• governance reforms in, 6

• supreme audit institutions in, 216, 218, 220, 225b, 226–229, 227–228b

Simard, Dominique, 47

Singapore, governance dividend in, 4–5

Sisk, T. D., 129

SNPC (Société Nationale Pétrolière du Congo), 112–114, 113f, 122

Sobrinho, Nelson, 27

SOEs. See State-owned enterprises

Somalia, anticorruption reforms in, 139, 144

Sonangol (Angolan SOE), 22, 22n15

South Africa

• as benchmark, 75–76

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds in, 198, 199b, 205, 228, 229

• e-government in, 257

• fiscal costs of corruption in, 16

• state-owned enterprise corruption in, 22

• supreme audit institutions in, 218, 225b

South Asia. See also specific countries

• e-government trends in, 255, 255–256f

• institutional frameworks in, 258, 260

South Sudan

• e-government in, 255

• supreme audit institutions in, 216

Sovereign wealth funds (SWFs), 70

Staines, Nicholas, 153

State-owned enterprises (SOEs)

• in Botswana, 53

• CEMAC’s governance frameworks and, 94

• CEMAC’s public financial management framework and, 96

• in Comoros, 186, 191

• concession systems and, 100, 101b

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 161–162, 163

• in Madagascar, 173

• in Nigeria, 76, 77–86

• performance undermined by weak governance, 22–24, 23–24f

• production-sharing agreements and, 100–101, 101b

• public financial management and, 51–53

• in Republic of Congo, 112–116, 116f, 122

• in Rwanda, 53

• in Seychelles, 53

• supreme audit institutions and, 218

STRs. See Suspicious transaction reports

Sub-Saharan Africa. See also specific countries

• central bank governance in, 233–249

• corruption and governance perceptions in, 28–29, 28f

• economic growth in, 4, 35–40, 36t, 37f, 38t, 39f, 41t

• e-government trends in, 255, 255–256f, 269

• infrastructure investment in, 22

• institutional frameworks in, 258, 259

• supreme audit institutions in, 217

Suc, Gwenaelle, 89

Sudan, supreme audit institutions in, 218

Supreme audit institutions (SAIs), 209–229. See also specific countries

• anticorruption reforms and, 211–212, 220–223, 224–225b

• budget process and, 210

• central bank governance and, 219, 219n14

• civil society role in, 223, 224b

• compliance audits, 213

• constraints on effectiveness of, 215–218

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds and, 197, 198

• emergency funds compliance audits by, 225–229, 227–228b

• financial audits, 213

• global norms and guidance for, 211–212

• high-level corruption cases shaping policy debate on, 135b

• IMF engagement with, 218–220, 219f

• independence of, 215, 216

• institutional frameworks for, 212–214, 220–222

• International Standards of Supreme Audit Institutions (ISSAI), 243n7

• judiciary and, 213–214, 222, 224

• legislative model for, 213–214

• media role in, 223, 224b

• performance audits, 213

• sanctions by, 222–223

• state-owned enterprises and, 218

Suspicious transaction reports (STRs)

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 98

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 166

• in Nigeria, 84, 85

Sustainable Development Goals (UN), 12, 134, 136, 146

Sweden, governance dividend in, 5

SWFs (sovereign wealth funds), 70

Sy, Amadou N. R., 293

Tabellini, G., 33

Tanzania

• anticorruption reforms in, 139

• supreme audit institutions in, 218

Task Force on Money Laundering in Central Africa, 97

Tax compliance

• in Botswana, 49–51, 50f

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 94

• in Comoros, 189, 191

• corruption’s effect on, 17–19, 17f

• corruption’s effect on revenue collection, 18, 18n11

• in Democratic Republic of Congo, 162–163

• in emerging market economies, 17–19, 17f

• extractive industries and, 70

• in Madagascar, 173, 175, 175t, 178, 179, 179f

• revenue mobilization through improved compliance, 32

• in Rwanda, 49–51, 50f

• in Seychelles, 49–51, 50f

Taylor-Pearce, Lara, 209, 227b

Telecommunication Infrastructure Index (TII), 254, 263–264, 269

Terrorism financing. See also AML/CFT framework

• Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (UN), 187

TGA (treasury general account), 161

Takoor, Vimal, 27

TII (Telecommunication Infrastructure Index), 254, 263–264, 269

Tirole, J., 264

Togo, supreme audit institutions in, 216

Transnet, 22

Transparency

• CEMAC governance frameworks and, 91–92, 96, 106

• central bank governance and, 245–247, 246–247f

• in Comoros, 189

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds and, 198, 205

• for Nigerian SOEs, 80–81, 82–84

• in Republic of Congo, 116, 117

• for SOEs, 22–23

• supreme audit institutions and, 209

Transparency International. See also Corruption Perceptions Index

• Corruption Barometer, 156

• on COVID-19 pandemic, 261

• The Ignored Pandemic: How Corruption in Healthcare Service Delivery Treatens Universal Health Coverage, 2

• Perceptions of Foreign Bribery Report, 155

Treasury general account (TGA), 161

Treasury single accounts (TSAs), 94, 96

Tshisekedi, Felix, 154

Turkewitz, Joel, 125

Uganda

• anticorruption reforms in, 139

• COVID- 19 pandemic funds in, 198

• as fragile state, 129n5

• public spending corruption in, 21–22

• supreme audit institutions in, 218, 220

United Kingdom

• Cadbury Committee, 233

• Corporate Governance Code, 234

• e-government in, 256

United Nations. See also Sustainable Development Goals

• Convention against Corruption, 98–99, 132, 133, 139–140, 167, 170, 221–222

• Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, 187

• E-Government Development Index (EGDI), 254

• Office on Drugs and Crime, 76

Van Greuning, Riaan, 233

Velloso, Ricardo, 27n1

Verdugo-Yepes, Concepcion, 109

Villafuerte, Mauricio, 153

Viseth, Arina, 47

Voice

• COVID-19 pandemic and, 261

• governance impact on economic growth and, 40, 41t

• measuring governance and, 30

Wane, Abdoul Aziz, 1, 251

West, D. M., 263

World Bank. See also Country Policy and Institutional Assessment

• anticorruption initiatives, 1

• on central bank governance, 57, 57n13

• on corruption in procurement process, 20

• on Democratic Republic of Congo, 162

• Doing Business Indicators, 59

• Enterprise Surveys, 158

• on fragile countries, 125, 127, 128b, 130f, 141, 147

• Government Digital Adoption Index, 296

• World Development Report (2011), 134, 136, 137, 141

World Economic Forum

• Executive Opinion Survey, 59, 158

• Expenditure Wastefulness Index, 271

• Global Competitiveness Indicators, 59, 60, 60f, 62–63, 166

World Health Organization (WHO), 126–127, 127n1, 257

World Justice Project Rule of Law Index, 60, 61f, 62

Worldwide Governance Indicators

• on Angola, 6

• on Botswana, 62

• on Comoros, 189f

• on Democratic Republic of Congo, 156, 157f, 166

• on governance dividend, 33, 35, 40, 41t

• on institutional frameworks, 257

• on Liberia, 6

• on Madagascar, 180, 181, 182b

• methodology for, 13n5

• on Nigeria, 76

• on Rwanda, 62

• on Seychelles, 62

• on Sierra Leone, 6

Xie, Jing, 251

Xu, Hua Daniel, 265

Yang, Susan S., 119, 267

Zambia

• COVID-19 pandemic funds in, 228

• supreme audit institutions in, 225b

Zanna, Luis-Felipe, 119

Zhao, Xuejiao, 265

Zimbabwe

• anticorruption reforms in, 132

• supreme audit institutions in, 218