The debate on the effectiveness of foreign aid has revolved for some time around the relative efficiency of loans versus grants. Since the early 1960s, an often-repeated view has been that loans are used more efficiently than grants because they are expected to be repaid. Furthermore, the need for repayment motivates governments to select projects or programs whose benefits exceed costs (see Schmidt, 1964). Therefore, concessional loans are better for meeting the objectives underlying development assistance (see Singer, 1961).
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Azam, Jean-Paul, Shantayanan Devarajan, and Stephen A. O’Connell, 1999, “Aid Dependence Reconsidered,” World Bank Policy Paper No. 2144 (Washington: World Bank).
Beck, Nathaniel, and Jonathan N. Katz, 1995, “What to Do (and Not to Do) with Time-Series—Cross-Section Data,” American Political Science Review, Vol. 89, Issue 3, pp. 634–47.
Bräutigam, Deborah, 2000, Aid Dependence and Governance (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell).
Bulíř, Aleš, and A. Javier Hamann, 2001, “How Volatile and Unpredictable Are Aid Flows, and What Are the Policy Implications?” IMF Working Paper 01/167 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Bulow, Jeremy, 2002, “First World Governments and Third World Debt,” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: 1, pp. 229–55.
Cashel-Cordo, Peter, and Steven Craig, 1990, “The Public Sector Impact of International Resource Transfers,” Journal of Development Economics, Vol. 32 (January), pp. 17–42.
Catterson, Julie, and Claes Lindahl, 1999, The Sustainability Enigma: Aid Dependency and the Phasing Out of Projects: The Case of Swedish Aid to Tanzania (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International).
Feeny, Simon, and Mark McGillivray, 2003, “Aid and Public Sector Borrowing in Developing Countries,” Journal of International Development, Vol. 15 (November), pp. 989–98.
Franco-Rodriguez, Susana, Oliver Morrissey, and Mark McGillivray, 1998, “Aid and the Public Sector in Pakistan: Evidence with Endogenous Aid,” World Development, Vol. 26 (July), pp. 1241–50.
Ghura, Dhaneshwar, 1998, “Tax Revenue in Sub-Saharan Africa: Effects of Economic Policies and Corruption,” IMF Working Paper 98/135 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Heller, Peter S., 1975, “A Model of Public Fiscal Behavior in Developing Countries: Aid, Investment, and Taxation,” American Economic Review, Vol. 65 (June), pp. 429–45.
Heller, Peter S., and Sanjeev Gupta, 2004, Chapter 15 in Helping Countries Develop: The Role of Fiscal Policy, ed. by Sanjeev Gupta, Benedict Clements, and Gabriela Inchauste (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
IFIAC, 2000, “Report of the International Financial Institution Advisory Commission” (Washington: IFIAC, U.S. Congress). Available via the Internet: www.house.gov/jec/imf/meltzer.htm.
Kapur, Devesh, 2002, “Do As I Say and Not As I Do: A Critique of G-7 Proposals on Reforming the Multilateral Development Banks,” United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, G-24 Discussion Paper No. 20 (Geneva: UNCTAD).
Khan, Haider, and Eiichi Hoshino, 1992, “Impact of Foreign Aid on the Fiscal Behavior of LDC Governments,” World Development, Vol. 20 (October), pp. 1481–88.
Knack, Stephen, 2001, “Aid Dependence and the Quality of Governance: Cross-country Empirical Tests,” Southern Economic Journal, Vol. 68 (October), pp. 310–29.
Leuthold, Jane H., 1991, “Tax Shares in Developing Economies: A Panel Study,” Journal of Development Economics, Vol. 35 (January), pp. 173–85.
Lotz, Jorgen R., and Elliott R. Morss, 1967, “Measuring ‘Tax Effort’ in Developing Countries,” IMF Staff Papers, Vol. 14, pp. 478–99.
Lotz, Jorgen R., and Elliott R. Morss, 1970, “A Theory of Tax Level Determinants for Developing Countries,” Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 328–41.
McGillivray, Mark, and Akhter Ahmed, 1999, “Aid, Adjustment and Public Sector Fiscal Behaviour in the Philippines,” Journal of the Asia-Pacific Economy, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 381–91.
McGillivray, Mark, and Oliver Morrissey, 2001, “A Review of Evidence on the Fiscal Effects of Aid,” CREDIT Research Paper No. 01/13 (Nottingham: Centre for Research in Economic Development and International Trade).
Odedokun, Matthew, 2003, “Economics and Politics of Official Loans versus Grants,” WIDER Discussion Paper No. 2003/04 (Helsinki: United Nations University, World Institute for Development Economics Research).
Otim, Samuel, 1996, “Foreign Aid and Government Fiscal Behavior in Low-Income South Asian Countries,” Applied Economics, Vol. 28 (August), pp. 927–33.
Pack, Howard, and Janet Pack, 1990, “Is Foreign Aid Fungible? The Case of Indonesia,” Economic Journal, Vol. 100 (March), pp. 188–94.
Rogoff, Kenneth, 2003, “Unlocking Growth in Africa,” Finance & Development, Vol. 40 (June), pp. 56–57.
Sanford, Jonathan E., 2002, “World Bank: IDA Loans or IDA Grants,” World Development, Vol. 30 (May), pp. 741–62.
Schmidt, Wilson E., 1964, “The Economics of Charity: Loans versus Grants,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 72 (August), pp. 387–95.
Singer, H.W., 1961, “Trends in Economic Thought or Underdevelopment,” Social Research, Winter 1961, No. 4, 387–414.
Stotsky, Janet G., and Asegedech WoldeMariam, 1997, “Tax Effort in Sub-Saharan Africa,” IMF Working Paper 97/107 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Svensson, Jakob, 2000, “Foreign Aid and Rent-Seeking,” Journal of International Economics, Vol. 51 (August), pp. 437–61.
Tanzi, Vito, 1989, “The Impact of Macroeconomic Policies on the Level of Taxation and the Fiscal Balance in Developing Countries,” IMF Staff Papers, Vol. 36 (September), pp. 633–56.
Tanzi, Vito, 1992, “Structural Factors and Tax Revenue in Developing Countries: A Decade of Evidence,” in Open Economies: Structural Adjustment & Agriculture, ed. by Ian Goldin and L. Alan Winters (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 267–81.
Tavares, Jose, 2003, “Does Foreign Aid Corrupt?” Economics Letters, Vol. 79 (April), pp. 99–106.
U.S. Department of the Treasury, 2000, “Response to the Report of the International Financial Institution Advisory Commission” (Washington: U.S. Department of the Treasury, 06 8). Available via the Internet: http://www.treas.gov/press/releases/reports/response.pdf.
White, Howard, 1993, “Aid and Government: A Dynamic Model of Aid, Income, and Fiscal Behavior,” Journal of International Development, Vol. 5 (May-June), pp. 305–12.
World Bank, 1998, Assessing Aid: What Works, What Doesn’t, and Why (Washington: World Bank).
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