This report evaluates the role of the IMF in three recent capital account crises, in Indonesia (1997–98), Korea (1997–98), and Brazil (1998–99). These crises have been the subject of extensive external commentary and have also been studied in detail by IMF staff. A number of important lessons have already been learned and corresponding corrective steps taken in the form of revised IMF policies and procedures. Nevertheless, it is appropriate for the Independent Evaluation Office (IEO) to conduct an independent assessment of the role of the IMF in these crises, taking advantage of its unique access to internal IMF documents while also taking note of earlier work where relevant. The evaluation seeks to draw lessons for the IMF, supplementing those that have already surfaced, and also to contribute to transparency by evaluating the internal processes by which important decisions were made.
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Alexander, William E., Jeffrey M. Davis, Liam P. Ebrill, and Carl-Johan Lindgren, 1997, Systemic Bank Restructuring and Macroeconomic Policy (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Allen, Mark, Christoph Rosenberg, Christian Keller, Brad Setser, and Nouriel Roubini, 2002, “A Balance Sheet Approach to Financial Crisis,” IMF Working Paper 02/210 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
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Asian Development Bank (ADB), 1997, “Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors on Proposed Loans to the Republic of Korea for the Financial Sector Program” (Manila).
Asian Development Bank (ADB), 2001a, Operations Evaluation Department, “Special Evaluation Study of the Asian Development Bank’s Crisis Management Interventions in Indonesia” (Manila).
Asian Development Bank (ADB), 2001b, “Program Completion Report on the Financial Sector Program to the Republic of Korea” (Manila).
Azis, Iwan J., 2001, “Modeling Crisis Evolution and Counterfactual Policy Simulations: A Country Case Study,” Working Paper 23 (Tokyo: ADB Institute).
Bacha, Edmar L., 2001, “Brazil’s Plano Real: A View from the Inside” (unpublished).
Baig, Taimur, and Ilan Goldfajn, 2000, “The Russian Default and the Contagion to Brazil,” IMF Working Paper 00/160 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Baliño, Tomas J.T., and Angel Ubide, 1999, “The Korean Financial Crisis of 1997—A Strategy of Financial Sector Reform,” IMF Working Paper 99/28 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Bank Indonesia, Directorate of Economic Research and Monetary Policy, 2001, “Credit Crunch in Indonesia in the Aftermath of the Crisis: Facts, Causes and Policy Implications” (Jakarta).
Bardhan, Pranab, 1997, “Corruption and Development: A Review of Issues,” Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 35 (September), pp. 1320–46.
Barton, Dominic, Roberto Newell, and Gregory Wilson, 2002, Dangerous Markets: Managing in Financial Crises (New York: John Wiley).
Basu, Priya, and Richard P. Roulier, 1999, “Creating and Sustaining a Financial Crisis: Preliminary Lessons of Indonesia,” Special Financial Operations (Washington: World Bank).
Basurto, Gabriela, and Atish Ghosh, 2001, “The Interest Rate–Exchange Rate Nexus in Currency Crises,” IMF Staff Papers, Special Issue, International Monetary Fund, Vol. 47, pp. 99–120.
Berg, Andrew, 1999, “The Asia Crisis: Causes, Policy Responses, and Outcomes,” IMF Working Paper 99/138 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Bevilaqua, Afonso S., 2000, “State-Government Bailouts in Brazil,” Discussion Paper 421, Department of Economics (Rio de Janeiro: Pontifícia Universidade Católica).
Bevilaqua, Afonso S., and Márcio G.P. Garcia, 1999, “Banks, Domestic Debt Intermediation and Confidence Crises: The Recent Brazilian Experience,” Discussion Paper 407, Department of Economics (Rio de Janeiro: Pontifícia Universidade Católica).
Bevilaqua, Afonso S., 2002, “Debt Management in Brazil: Evaluation of the Real Plan and Challenges Ahead,” International Journal of Finance and Economics, Vol. 7 (January), pp. 15–35.
Bevilaqua, Afonso S., and Eduardo Loyo, 2002, “The Brazilian Capital Account Crisis of 1998–1999: Issues for Evaluation,” Department of Economics (Rio de Janeiro: Pontifícia Universidade Católica).
Bevilaqua, Afonso S., and Rogério L.F. Werneck, 1998a, “Delaying Public-Sector Reforms: Post-Stabilization Fiscal Strains in Brazil,” Working Paper R-321, Office of the Chief Economist (Washington: Inter-American Development Bank).
Bevilaqua, Afonso S., and Rogério L.F. Werneck, 1998b, “The Quality of the Federal Net Debt in Brazil,” Discussion Paper 385, Department of Economics (Rio de Janeiro: Pontifícia Universidade Católica).
Blejer, Mario I., Alfredo M. Leone, Pau Rabanal, and Gerd Schwartz, 2001, “Inflation Targeting in the Context of IMF-Supported Adjustment Programs,” IMF Working Paper 01/31 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Blustein, Paul, 2001, The Chastening: Inside the Crisis That Rocked the Global Financial System and Humbled the IMF (New York: Public Affairs).
Boediono, 2001, “The Fund-Supported Program in Indonesia: Comparing Its Implementation Under Three Regimes,” remarks presented at the Seminar on IMF Conditionality, Tokyo, 07 10.
Bonelli, Regis, 1998, “A Note on Foreign Direct Investment and Industrial Competitiveness in Brazil,” Discussion Paper 584 (Rio de Janeiro: Institute for Applied Economic Research).
Boorman, Jack, Timothy Lane, Marianne Schulze-Ghattas, Aleš Bulíř, Atish R. Ghosh, Javier Hamann, Alex Mourmouras, and Steven Phillips, 2000, “Managing Financial Crises: The Experience in East Asia,” Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy, Vol. 53 (December), pp. 1–79.
Booth, Anne, 2001, “The Causes of South East Asia’s Economic Crisis: A Sceptical Review of the Debate,” Asia Pacific Business Review, Vol. 8 (Winter), pp. 19–48.
Borensztein, Eduardo, and Jong-Wha Lee, 2000, “Financial Crisis and Credit Crunch in Korea: Evidence from Firm-Level Data,” IMF Working Paper 00/25 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Boughton, James M., 2001, Silent Revolution: The International Monetary Fund, 1979–1989 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Boughton, James M., and Alex Mourmouras, 2002, “Is Policy Ownership an Operational Concept?” IMF Working Paper 02/72 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Bullard, Nicola, Walden Bello, and Kamal Malhotra, 1998, “Taming the Tigers: The IMF and the Asian Crisis,” in Tigers in Trouble: Financial Governance, Liberalisation and Crises in East Asia, ed. by K.S. Jomo (London: Zed Books).
Burnside, Craig, Martin Eichenbaum, and Sergio Rebelo, 2001, “Prospective Deficits and the Asian Currency Crisis,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 109 (December), pp. 1155–97.
Burstein, Ariel, Martin Eichenbaum, and Sergio Rebelo, 2001, “Why Are Rates of Inflation So Low After Large Devaluations?” (unpublished; Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University).
Cardoso, Eliana, and Ilan Goldfajn, 1998, “Capital Flows to Brazil: The Endogeneity of Capital Controls,” IMF Staff Papers, Vol. 45 (March), pp. 161–202.
Cardoso, Eliana, and Ann Helwege, 1999, “Currency Crises in the 1990s: The Case of Brazil” (unpublished).
Chang, Ha-Joon, Hong-Jae Park, and Chul Gyue Yoo, 1998, “Interpreting the Korean Crisis: Financial Liberalisation, Industrial Policy and Corporate Governance,” Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 22 (November), pp. 735–46.
Charap, Joshua, and Christian Harm, 1999, “Institutionalized Corruption and the Kleptocratic State,” IMF Working Paper 99/91 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Chari, V.V., and Patrick J. Kehoe, 1998, “Asking the Right Questions about the IMF,” Annual Report, Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Available on the Internet at http://woodrow.mpls.frb.fed.us/pubs/ar.
Chinn, Menzie D., 2000, “Before the Fall: Were East Asian Currencies Overvalued?” Emerging Markets Review, Vol. 1, No. 2 (08), pp. 101–26.
Cho, Dongchul, and Kenneth D. West, 2000, “The Effect of Monetary Policy in Exchange Rate Stabilization in Post-Crisis Korea,” in The Korean Crisis: Before and After, ed. by I. Shin (Seoul: Korea Development Institute).
Cho, Yoon Je, 2002, “What Have We Learned from the Korean Economic Adjustment Program?” in Korean Crisis and Recovery, ed. by David T. Coe and Se-Jik Kim (Washington and Seoul: International Monetary Fund and Korea Institute for International Economic Policy).
Cho, Yoon Je, and Changyong Rhee, 1999, “Macroeconomic Views of the East Asian Crisis: A Comparison” (unpublished).
Chopra, Ajai, Kenneth Kang, Meral Karasulu, Hong Liang, Henry Ma, and Anthony Richards, 2002, “From Crisis to Recovery in Korea: Strategy, Achievements, and Lessons,” in Korean Crisis and Recovery, ed. by David T. Coe and Se-Jik Kim (Washington and Seoul: International Monetary Fund and Korea Institute for International Economic Policy).
Chowdhury, Abdur R., 1999, “The Asian Currency Crisis: Origins, Lessons, and Future Outlook,” Research for Action 47 (Helsinki: UNU World Institute for Development Economics Research).
Chung, Chae-Shick, and Se-Jik Kim, 2002, “New Evidence on High Interest Rate Policy During the Korean Crisis,” in Korean Crisis and Recovery, ed. by David T. Coe and Se-Jik Kim (Washington and Seoul: International Monetary Fund and Korea Institute for International Economic Policy).
Chung, Un-Chan, 2002, “The Korean Economy: Before and After the 1997 Crisis,” paper presented at the conference “The Korean Economy: Beyond the Crisis,” organized by the Research Center for International Finance, School of International and Area Studies, Seoul National University, 10 4–5.
Claessens, Stijn, and Thomas Glaessner, 1999, “Are Financial Sector Weaknesses Undermining the East Asian Miracle?” (Washington:World Bank).
Claessens, Stijn, Swati Ghosh, and David Scott, 2002, “Korea’s Financial Sector Reforms,” in The Asian Financial Crisis: Origins, Implications, and Solutions, ed. by W.C. Hunter, G.G. Kaufman, and T.H. Krueger (Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers for the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago and the International Monetary Fund).
Coe, David T., and Se-Jik Kim, eds., 2002, Korean Crisis and Recovery (Washington and Seoul: International Monetary Fund and Korea Institute for International Economic Policy).
Cole, David C., 2002, “Impact of Early Financial Growth Strategies on Financial Structures and Problems in Three Asian Crisis Countries,” in Financial Sector Policy for Developing Countries: A Reader, ed. by G. Caprio, P. Honohan, and D. Vittas (Washington: World Bank).
Cole, David C., and Betty F. Slade, 1996, Building a Modern Financial System: The Indonesian Experience (New York: Cambridge University Press).
Cole, David C., 1998, “Why Has Indonesia’s Financial Crisis Been So Bad?” Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, Vol. 34 (August), pp. 61–66.
Corsetti, Giancarlo, Paolo Pesenti, and Nouriel Roubini, 1999, “The Asian Crisis: An Overview of the Empirical Evidence and Policy Debate,” in The Asian Financial Crisis: Causes, Contagion and Consequences, ed. by P.R. Agénor, M. Miller, D. Vines, and A. Weber (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press).
Cottarelli, Carlo, and Curzio Giannini, 2002, “Bedfellows, Hostages, or Perfect Strangers? Global Capital Markets and the Catalytic Effect of IMF Crisis Lending,” IMF Working Paper 02/193 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Crow, John, Ricardo Arriazu, and Niels Thygesen [Crow Report], 1999, External Evaluation of IMF Surveillance: Report by a Group of Independent Experts (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Culp, Christopher L., Steve H. Hanke, and Merton H. Miller, 1999, “The Case for an Indonesian Currency Board,” Journal of Applied Corporate Finance, Vol. 11 (Winter), pp. 57–65.
Daniel, Betty C., 1999, “A Fiscal Theory of Currency Crises,” Department of Economics (Albany, New York: State University of New York).
de Carvalho, Fernando J. Cardim, 1998, “The Real Stabilization Plan and the Banking Sector in Brazil” Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Quarterly Review, Vol. 51, No. 206 (09), pp. 291–326.
DeLong, J. Bradford, and Barry Eichengreen, 2001, “Between Meltdown and Moral Hazard: The International Monetary and Financial Policies of the Clinton Administration,” NBER Working Paper 8443 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: National Bureau of Economic Research).
Diaz-Alejandro, Carlos, 1963, “A Note on the Impact of Devaluation and the Redistributive Effect,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 71 (December), pp. 577–80.
Diaz-Alejandro, and Carlos, 1965, Exchange-Rate Devaluation in a Semi-Industrialized Country: The Experience of Argentina, 1955–1961 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press).
Djiwandono, J. Soedradjad, 2000, “Bank Indonesia and the Recent Crisis,” Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, Vol. 36 (April), pp. 47–72.
Djiwandono, J. Soedradjad, 2001, “The Role of the IMF in the Crisis” (11).
Djiwandono, J. Soedradjad, 2002, “Liquidity Support and the Financial Crisis: The Indonesian Experience,” Working Paper 40 (Singapore: Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies).
Domaç, Ilker, and Giovanni Ferri, 1998, “The Real Impact of Financial Shocks: Evidence from Korea,” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 2010 (Washington: World Bank).
Dornbusch, Rudiger, 1997, “Brazil’s Incomplete Stabilization and Reform,” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: 1, Brookings Institution, pp. 367–404.
Drazen, Allan, 2000, “Interest-Rate and Borrowing Defense Against Speculative Attack,” Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy, Vol. 53 (December), pp. 303–48.
Enoch, Charles, Barbara Baldwin, Oliver Frécaut, and Arto Kovanen, 2001, “Indonesia: Anatomy of a Banking Crisis—Two Years of Living Dangerously, 1997–99,” IMF Working Paper 01/52 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Fane, George, 2000a, “Survey of Recent Developments,” Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, Vol. 36, No. 1 (04), pp. 13–44.
Fane, and George, 2000b, “Indonesian Monetary Policy During the 1997–98 Crisis: A Monetarist Perspective,” Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, Vol. 36, No. 3 (12), pp. 49–64.
Feldstein, Martin, 1998, “Refocusing the IMF,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 77 (March/April), pp. 20–33.
Feldstein, Martin, 2002, “Financial and Currency Crises in Emerging Market Economies: An Introduction,” in Economic and Financial Crises in Emerging Market Economies, ed. by M. Feldstein (Chicago: University of Chicago Press for the National Bureau of Economic Research).
Fischer, Stanley, 1999, “On the Need for an International Lender of Last Resort,” paper presented at the joint luncheon of the American Economic Association and the American Finance Association, New York, 01 3.
Fischer, Stanley, 2001, “International Financial System: Crises and Reform,” The Robbins Lectures, London School of Economics, 10 29–31.
Flood, Robert P., and Olivier Jeanne, 2000, “An Interest Rate Defense of a Fixed Exchange Rate?” IMF Working Paper 00/159 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Folkerts-Landau, David, Carl-Johan Lindgren, 1998, Toward a Framework for Financial Stability, World Economic and Financial Surveys (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Fraga, Arminio, 2000, “Monetary Policy During the Transition to a Floating Exchange Rate: Brazil’s Recent Experience,” Finance & Development, Vol. 37 (March), pp. 16–18.
Franco, Gustavo H.B., 2000, “The Real Plan and the Exchange Rate,” Essays in International Finance, No. 217, International Finance Section, Department of Economics (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University).
Frankel, Jeffrey A., 2000, “The Asian Model, the Miracle, the Crisis, and the Fund,” in Currency Crises, ed. by P. Krugman (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).
Frankel, Jeffrey A., 2002, “Fourteen Suggested Questions to Be Investigated in the IMF’s Handling of Capital Account Crises, with Specific Examples in Korea, Indonesia and Brazil.”
Frécaut, Olivier, 2002, “Banking System Losses in Indonesia: Looking Out for Fifty Billion U.S. Dollars—Can the SNA Help?” paper presented at the Twenty Seventh General Conference of the International Association for Research in Income and Wealth, Stockholm, 08 18–24.
Fukuyama, Francis, 1995, “Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity” (New York: Free Press).
Furman, Jason, and Joseph E. Stiglitz, 1998, “Economic Crises: Evidence and Insights from East Asia,” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: 2, Brookings Institution, pp. 1–114.
Garcia, Márcio G.P., and Marcus Vinicius Valpassos, 1998, “Capital Flows, Capital Controls and Currency Crisis: The Case of Brazil in the Nineties,” Discussion Paper 389, Department of Economics (Rio de Janeiro: Pontifícia Universidade Católica).
Ghosh, Atish, Timothy Lane, Schulze-Ghattas, Aleš Bulíř, Javier Hamann, and Alex Mourmouras, 2002, IMF-Supported Programs in Capital Account Crises, IMF Occasional Paper 210 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Ghosh, Swati R., and Atish R. Ghosh, 1999, “East Asia in the Aftermath: Was There a Crunch?” IMF Working Paper 99/38 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Gie, Kwik Kian, 1993, I Had a Dream that I Became the Owner of a Conglomerate (Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama).
Goldfajn, Ilan, 2000, “The Swings in Capital Flows and the Brazilian Crisis,” Discussion Paper 422, Department of Economics (Rio de Janeiro: Pontifícia Universidade Católica).
Goldfajn, Ilan, and Taimur Baig, 1998, “Monetary Policy in the Aftermath of Currency Crises: The Case of Asia,” IMF Working Paper 98/170 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Goldfajn, Ilan, and Poonam Gupta, 1999, “Does Monetary Policy Stabilize the Exchange Rate Following a Currency Crisis?” IMF Working Paper 99/42 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Goldsbrough, David, and others, 1996, Reinvigorating Growth in Developing Countries: Lessons from Adjustment Policies in Eight Economies, IMF Occasional Paper 139 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Goldstein, Morris, 1998, “The Asian Financial Crisis: Causes, Cures, and Systemic Implications,” Policy Analyses in International Economics 55 (Washington: Institute for International Economics).
Goldstein, Morris, 2002, “IMF Structural Programs,” in Economic and Financial Crises in Emerging Market Economies, ed. by Martin Feldstein (Chicago: University of Chicago Press for the National Bureau of Economic Research).
Gordon, Lincoln, 2001, Brazil’s Second Chance: En Route Toward the First World (Washington: Brookings Institution).
Grenville, Stephen, 2000, “Monetary Policy and the Exchange Rate During the Crisis,” Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, Vol. 36, No. 2 (08), pp. 43–60.
Hanke, Steve, 1998a, “Hands up for Hanke,” Central Banking, Vol. 8 (Spring), pp. 24–26.
Hanke, Steve, 1998b, “How I Spent My Spring Vacation,” International Economy, Vol. 12 (July/August), pp. 30–33.
Hanke, Steve, 2000, “Reforming the IMF: Lessons from Indonesia,” Central Banking, Vol. 11 (November), pp. 38–44.
Hunter, William C., George G. Kaufman, and Thomas H. Krueger, eds., 1999, The Asian Financial Crisis: Origins, Implications, and Solutions (Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers for the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago and the International Monetary Fund).
Im, Wonhyuk, 2002, “Corporate Performance in Post-Crisis Korea” (unpublished; Seoul: Korea Development Institute).
Independent Evaluation Office (IEO), 2002, Evaluation of the Prolonged Use of IMF Resources (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Institute of International Finance (IIF), 1997a, “Brazil—Economic Report,” 03 13 (Washington).
Institute of International Finance (IIF), 1997b, “Indonesia—Economic Report,” 10 22 (Washington).
Institute of International Finance (IIF), 1997c, “South Korea—Economic Report,” 12 19 (Washington).
Institute of International Finance (IIF), 1998a, “Indonesia—Economic Report,” 02 20 (Washington).
Institute of International Finance (IIF), 1998b, “South Korea—Economic Report,” 03 24 (Washington).
Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), Office of Evaluation and Oversight, 2001, “Evaluation of IDB Emergency Lending, 1998–1999,” RE-251 (Washington).
Ito, Takatoshi, 2000, “The Role of IMF Advice: A Postcrisis Examination,” in Reforming the International Monetary and Financial System, ed. by P.B. Kenen and A.K. Swoboda (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Joh, Sung Wook, 2002, “Chaebol Reform and Structural Change in the Corporate Sector,” paper presented at the conference “The Korean Economy: Beyond the Crisis,” organized by the Research Center for International Finance, School of International and Area Studies, Seoul National University, 10 4–5.
Johnson, Colin, 1998, “Survey of Recent Developments,” Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, Vol. 34, No. 2 (08), pp. 3–60.
Johnston, R. Barry, Salim M. Darbar, and Claudia Echeverria, 1997, “Sequencing Capital Account Liberalization: Lessons from the Experiences in Chile, Indonesia, Korea, and Thailand,” IMF Working Paper 97/157 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Jomo, K.S., ed., 1998, Tigers in Trouble: Financial Governance, Liberalisation and Crises in East Asia (London: Zed Books).
Jun, Joosung, 2002, “Fiscal Policy During and After the Crisis in Korea,” paper presented at the conference “The Korean Economy: Beyond the Crisis,” organized by the Research Center for International Finance, School of International and Area Studies, Seoul National University, 10 4–5.
Kenward, Lloyd R., 1997, “Indonesia: Recent Economic Developments,” a paper presented at a meeting of the Indonesia Consultative Group, Tokyo, 07 16–17.
Kenward, Lloyd R., 1999, “Assessing Vulnerability to Financial Crisis: Evidence from Indonesia,” Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, Vol. 35, No. 3 (12), pp. 71–95.
Kenward, Lloyd R., 2000, “From the Trenches: The First Year of Indonesia’s Crisis of 1997/98 as Seen from the World Bank Offices in Jakarta” (unpublished).
Khan, Mohsin S., and Sunil Sharma, 2001, “IMF Conditionality and Country Ownership of Programs,” IMF Working Paper 01/142 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Kim, Dookyung, 1999, “Bank Restructuring in Korea,” in Bank Restructuring in Practice, Policy Paper 6 (Basel: Bank for International Settlements).
Kim, Hyun E., 1999, “Was the Credit Channel a Key Monetary Transmission Mechanism Following the Recent Financial Crisis in the Republic of Korea?” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 2103 (Washington: World Bank).
Kim, In-June, and Baekin Cha, 2002, “Reform, Sustainable Growth and Vulnerability to Crisis in Korea,” paper presented at the conference “The Korean Economy: Beyond the Crisis,” organized by the Research Center for International Finance, School of International and Area Studies, Seoul National University, 10 4–5.
Kim, Soyoung, Sunghyun H. Kim, and Yun-jong Wang, 2001, “Capital Account Liberalization and Macroeconomic Performance: The Case of Korea,” Policy Analysis 01-01 (Seoul: Korea Institute for International Economic Policy).
Kim, Woochan, and Yangho Byeon, 2002, “Restructuring Korean Banks’ Short-Term Debts,” in Korean Crisis and Recovery, ed. by David T. Coe and Se-Jik Kim (Washington and Seoul: International Monetary Fund and Korea Institute for International Economic Policy).
Kochhar, Kalpana, Prakash Loungani, and Mark R. Stone, 1998, “The East Asian Crisis: Macroeconomic Developments and Policy Lessons,” IMF Working Paper 98/128 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Kraay, Aart, 1998, “Do High Interest Rates Defend Currencies During Speculative Attacks?” (Washington: World Bank).
Krueger, Anne O., 2002, “IMF Stabilization Programs,” in Economic and Financial Crises in Emerging Market Economies, ed. by Martin Feldstein (Chicago: University of Chicago Press for the National Bureau of Economic Research).
Krueger, Anne O., and Jungho Yoo, 2002, “Falling Profitability, Higher Borrowing Costs, and Chaebol Finances During the Korean Crisis,” in Korean Crisis and Recovery, ed. by David T. Coe and Se-Jik Kim (Washington and Seoul: International Monetary Fund and Korea Institute for International Economic Policy).
Krugman, Paul R., 1999, The Return of Depression Economics (New York: Norton).
Lahiri, Amartya, and Carlos Végh, 2002, “On the NonMonotonic Relation Between Interest Rates and the Exchange Rate” (unpublished; Los Angeles: University of California).
Lane, Timothy, and others, 1999, IMF-Supported Programs in Indonesia, Korea, and Thailand: A Preliminary Assessment, IMF Occasional Paper 178 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Lane, Timothy, and Steven Phillips, 2000, “Does IMF Financing Result in Moral Hazard?” IMF Working Paper 00/168 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Lee, Jong-Wha, and Changyong Rhee, 2001, “Macroeconomic Impacts of the Korean Financial Crisis: Comparison with the Cross-Country Patterns.”
Lee, Kuan Yew, 2000, From Third World to First: The Singapore Story, 1965–2000 (New York: Harper Collins).
Lee, Kyu-Sung, 1999, Policy Visions for Crisis Resolution and Economic Take-Off (Seoul: Ministry of Finance and Economy).
Lee, Seong-Bong, and Kikyung Yun, 2002, “Assessment of Foreign Direct Investment Liberalization in Korea,” paper presented at the seminar “Korea’s Economic Liberalization Policy Since the Financial Crisis: Assessment and Future Agenda,” Korea Institute for International Economic Policy, 03 7.
Lindgren, Carl-Johan, Gillian G. Garcia, and Matthew I. Saal, 1996, Bank Soundness and Macroeconomic Policy (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Lindgren, Carl-Johan, Tomas J.T. Baliño, Charles Enoch, Anne-Marie Gulde, Marc Quintyn, and Leslie Teo, 1999, Financial Sector Crisis and Restructuring: Lessons from Asia, IMF Occasional Paper 188 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Lipsky, John, 1998, “Asia’s Crisis: A Market Perspective,” Finance & Development, Vol. 35 (June), pp. 10–13.
Lissakers, Karin, 1999, “The IMF and the Asian Crisis: A View from the Executive Board,” in The Asian Financial Crisis: Origins, Implications, and Solutions, ed. W.C. Hunter, G.G. Kaufman, and T.H. Krueger (Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers for the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago and the International Monetary Fund).
Lopes, Francisco L., 2000, “The Brazilian Crisis of 1997–99: An Insider’s View,” paper presented at the Conference “Critical Issues in Financial Reform: Latin American/Caribbean and Canadian Perspectives,” Munk Centre for International Studies, University of Toronto, 06.
Mako, William P., 2002, “Corporate Restructuring and Reform: Lessons from Korea,” in Korean Crisis and Recovery, ed. by David T. Coe and Se-Jik Kim (Washington and Seoul: International Monetary Fund and Korea Institute for International Economic Policy).
Mauro, Paolo, 1995, “Corruption and Growth,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 110 (August), pp. 681–712.
McHale, John, 2000a, “The Korean Currency Crisis: A Report on the Third Country Meeting of the NBER Project on Exchange Rate Crisis in Emerging Market Countries” (Cambridge, Massachusetts: National Bureau of Economic Research).
McHale, John, 2000b, “Brazil in the 1997–1999 Financial Turmoil: Fourth Country Meeting of the NBER Project on Exchange Rate Crisis in Emerging Market Countries” (Cambridge, Massachusetts: National Bureau of Economic Research).
McHale, John, 2000c, “Indonesia: A Report on the Fifth Country Meeting of the NBER Project on Exchange Rate Crisis in Emerging Market Countries” (Cambridge, Massachusetts: National Bureau of Economic Research).
Montes, Manuel F., and Muhammad Ali Abdusalamov, 1998, “Indonesia: Reaping the Market,” in Tigers in Trouble: Financial Governance, Liberalisation and Crises in East Asia, ed. by K.S. Jomo (London: Zed Books).
Montgomery, Roger, Sudarno Sumarto, Sulton Mawardi, Syaikhu Usman, Nina Toyamah, Vita Febriany, and John Strain, 2002, “Deregulation of Indonesia’s Interregional Agricultural Trade,” Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, Vol. 38, No. 1 (04), pp. 93–117.
Mussa, Michael, and Miguel Savastano, 1999, “The IMF Approach to Economic Stabilization,” IMF Working Paper 99/104 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Musso, Alberto, and Steven Phillips, 2001, “Comparing Projections and Outcomes of IMF-Supported Programs,” IMF Working Paper 01/45 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Nam, Sang-Woo, 2001, “Business Groups Looted by Controlling Families, and the Asian Crisis,” Research Paper 27 (Tokyo: ADB Institute).
Nasution, Anwar, 2002, “The Indonesian Economic Recovery from the Crisis in 1997–1998,” Journal of Asian Economics, Vol. 13, No. 2 (March/April) pp. 157–80.
Neiss, Hubert, 1999, “Opening Statement,” presented at the Press Conference on IMF-Supported Programs in Indonesia, Korea, and Thailand, Bangkok, 01 22.
Neiss, Hubert, 2001, “Conditionality and Program Ownership,” remarks presented at the Seminar on IMF Conditionality, Tokyo, 07 10.
Noble, Gregory W., and John Ravenhill, eds., 2000, The Asian Financial Crisis and the Architecture of Global Finance (New York: Cambridge University Press).
Oh, Gyutaeg, and Changyong Rhee, 2002, “The Role of Corporate Bond Markets in the Korean Financial Restructuring Process,” in Korean Crisis and Recovery, ed. by David T. Coe and Se-Jik Kim (Washington and Seoul: International Monetary Fund and Korea Institute for International Economic Policy).
Ohno, Kenichi, Kazuko Shirono, and Elif Sisli, 1999, “Can High Interest Rates Stop Regional Currency Falls? The Asian Experience in 1997–98,” Working Paper 6 (Tokyo: ADB Institute).
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 1998, OECD Economic Surveys: Korea (Paris).
Park, Daekeun, and Changyong Rhee, 1998, “Currency Crisis in Korea: How Was It Aggravated?” Asian Development Review, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 149–81.
Park, Yung Chul, 2001, “The East Asian Dilemma: Restructuring Out or Growing Out?” Essays in International Economics 223, International Economics Section, Department of Economics (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University).
Pincus, Jonathan, and Rizal Ramli, 1998, “Indonesia: From Showcase to Basket Case,” Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 22 (November), pp. 723–34.
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