Government expenditure policy will have a key role in determining whether countries meet the MDGs. In many countries, the government will have a central role in ensuring that its citizens, especially the poor, have access to education and health services by either providing these services itself or financing private sector provision. As such, it is critical to understand the link between government spending on these programs and performance on indicators that measure the health and education status of the population. Of special interest is how government spending affects the achievement of the 48 social and human development indicators that have been selected to monitor progress toward the achievement of the MDGs.
Abed, George, Liam Ebrill, Sanjeev Gupta, Benedict Clements, Ronald McMorran, Anthony Pellechio, Jerald Schiff, and Marijn Verhoeven, 1998, Fiscal Reforms in Low-Income Countries: Experience Under IMF-Supported Programs, IMF Occasional Paper No. 160 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Abed, George, and Sanjeev Gupta, eds., 2002 , Governance, Corruption, and Economic Performance (Washington: International Monetary Fund, forthcoming).
Alesina, Alberto, and Roberto Perotti, 1996, “Fiscal Adjustments in OECD Countries: Composition and Macroeconomic Effects,” IMF Working Paper 96/70 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Anderson, Gerard F., Jeremy Hurst, Peter Sotir Hussey, and Melissa Jee-Hughes, 2000, “Health Spending and Outcomes: Trends in OECD Countries, 1960–1998,” Health Affairs, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 150–57.
Baldacci, Emanuele, Maria Teresa Guin-Siu, and Luiz de Mello, 2002, “More of the Effectiveness of Public Spending on Health Care and Education: A Covariance Structure Model,” IMF Working Paper 02/90 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Bardhan, Pranab, 1997, “Corruption and Development: A Review of Issues,” Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 35 (September), pp. 1320–46.
Barro, Robert J., 2001, “Human Capital and Growth,” American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, Vol. 91 (May), pp. 12–17.
Barro, Robert J., and Xavier Sala-i-Martin, 1995, Economic Growth (New York: McGraw-Hill).
Bidani, Benu, and Martin Ravallion, 1997, “Decomposing Social Indicators Using Distributional Data,” Journal of Econometrics, Vol. 77 (March), pp. 125–39.
Boadway, Robin, and Michael Keen, 2000, “Redistribution,” in Handbook of Income Distribution, ed. by A.B. Atkinson and F. Bourguignon (Amsterdam: North-Holland).
Boorman, Jack, Timothy Lane, Marianne Schulze-Ghattas, Aleš Bulíř, Atish Ghosh, Javier Hamann, Alexandros Mourmouras, and Steven Phillips, 2000, “Managing Financial Crisis: The Experience in East Asia,” IMF Working Paper 00/107 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Chen, Shaohua, and Martin Ravallion, 1997, “What Can New Survey Data Tell Us about Recent Changes in Distribution and Poverty?” World Bank Economic Review, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 357–82.
Chu, Ke-young, and Sanjeev Gupta, eds., 1998, Social Safety Nets: Issues and Recent Experiences (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Davoodi, Hamid, and Somlak Sachjapinan, 2002, “How Useful Are Benefit Incidence Studies?” forthcoming as an IMF Working Paper (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Dollar, David, and Aart Kraay, 2001, “Growth Is Good for the Poor,” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 2587 (Washington: World Bank).
Easterly, William, and Sergio Rebelo, 1993, “Fiscal Policy and Economic Growth: An Empirical Investigation,” Journal of Monetary Economics, Vol. 32 (December), pp. 417–58.
Easterly, William, Carlos A. Rodríguez, and Klaus Schmidt-Hebbel, 1994, Public Sector Deficits and Macroeconomic Performance (New York: Oxford University Press).
Ebrill, Liam, Michael Keen, Jean-Paul Bodin, and Victoria Summers, 2001, The Modern VAT (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Filmer, Deon, and Lant Pritchett, 1997, “Child Mortality and Public Spending on Health: How Much Does Money Matter?” Policy Research Working Paper No. 1864 (Washington: World Bank).
Flug, Karnit, Antonio Spilimbergo, and Erik Wachtenheim, 1998, “Investment in Education: Do Economic Volatility and Credit Constraints Matter?” Journal of Development Economics, Vol. 55 (April), pp. 465–81.
Gallup, John Luke, and Jeffrey D. Sachs, 2001, “The Economic Burden of Malaria,” American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Special Supplement (June).
Gavin, Michael, and Ricardo Hausmann, 1998, “Macroeconomic Volatility and Economic Development,” IEA Conference Volume, No. 199 (London: Macmillan Press), pp. 97–116.
Glewwe, Paul, 2002, “Schools and Skills in Developing Countries: Education Policies and Socioeconomic Outcomes,” Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 436–82.
Guitián, Manuel, 1998, “Income Distribution and High-Quality Growth,” in Monetary Policy: Equity Issues in IMF Policy Advice, ed. by Vito Tanzi and Keyoung Chu (Cambridge, Massachusetts and London: MIT Press), pp. 333–50.
Gupta, Sanjeev, Calvin McDonald, Christian Schiller, Marijn Verhoeven, Željko Bogetić, and Gerd Schwartz, 1999, “Mitigating the Social Costs of the Economic Crisis and the Reform Programs in Asia,” International Economic Policy Review, Vol. 1, pp. 91–110.
Gupta, Sanjeev, Kenneth Miranda, and Ian Parry, 1995, “Public Expenditure Policy and the Environment: A Review and Synthesis,” World Development, Vol. 23 (March), pp. 515–28.
Gupta, Sanjeev, and Marijn Verhoeven, 2001, “The Efficiency of Government Expenditure: Experiences from Africa,” Journal of Policy Modeling, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 433–67.
Gupta, Sanjeev, Benedict Clements, Emanuele Baldacci, and Carlos Mulas-Granados, 2002a, “Expenditure Composition, Fiscal Adjustment, and Growth in Low-Income Countries,” IMF Working Paper 02/77 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Gupta, Sanjeev, Benedict Clements, Kevin Fletcher, and Gabriela Inchauste, 2002b, “Issues in Domestic Petroleum Pricing in Oil-Producing Countries,” paper prepared for the IMF Conference on Fiscal Policy Formulation and Implementation in Oil-Producing Countries, Washington (also forthcoming as an IMF Working Paper).
Gupta, Sanjeev, Mark Plant, Benedict Clements, Thomas Dorsey, Emanuele Baldacci, Gabriela Inchauste, Shamsuddin Tareq, and Nita Thacker, 2002c, Is the PRGF Living Up to Expectations ?: An Assessment of Program Design, IMF Occasional Paper No. 216 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Gupta, Sanjeev, Marijn Verhoeven, and Erwin Tiongson, 2002d, “Public Spending on Health Care and the Poor,” forthcoming in Health Economics.
Gupta, Sanjeev, Marijn Verhoeven, and Erwin Tiongson, 2002e, “The Effectiveness of Government Spending on Education and Health Care in Developing and Transition Economies,” forthcoming in the November issue of the European Journal of Political Economy.
Hettige, Hemamala, Muthukumara Mani, and David Wheeler, 2000, “Industrial Pollution in Economic Development: The Environmental Kuznets Curve Revisited,” Journal of Development Economics, Vol. 62 (August), pp. 445–76.
Kneller, Richard, Michael Bleaney, and Norman Gemmell, 1999, “Fiscal Policy and Growth: Evidence from OECD Countries,” Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 74 (November), pp. 171–90.
Koenig, Michael, David Bishai, and Mehrab Ali Khan, 2001, “Health Interventions and Health Equity: The Example of Measles Vaccination in Bangladesh,” Population and Development Review, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 283–302.
Köhler, Horst, 2002, “Building a Better Future in Africa,” speech delivered on May 3 in Accra, Ghana. This is available on the web at http://www.imf.org/external/np/speeches/2002/050302.htm.
Krueger, Alan, and Mikael Lindahl, 2001, “Education for Growth: Why and for Whom?” Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 39 (December), pp. 1101–36.
López, Ramón 2002, “Growth, Equity and the Environment: Elements for a Development Strategy for Latin America” (unpublished; Washington: Inter-American Development Bank).
Mehrotra, Santosh, 1998, “Education for All: Policy Lessons from High-Achieving Countries,” UNICEF Staff Working Papers, Evaluation, Policy and Planning Series No. EPP-EVL–98–005 (New York: United Nations Children’s Fund).
Mingat, Alain, and Jee-Peng Tan, 1998, “The Mechanics of Progress in Education: Evidence from Cross-Country Data,” Policy Research Working Paper No. 2015 (Washington: World Bank).
New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), 2001, “New Partnership for Africa’s Development,” declaration made in Abuja, Nigeria (October). This is available on the web at http://www.uneca.org/eca_resources/Conference_Reports_and_Other_Documents/nepad/NEPAD.htm.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2001a, The DAC Guidelines—Strategies for Sustainable Development: Guidance for Development Cooperation (Paris). This is also available on the web at http://www.oecd.org/pdf/M00021000/M00021806.pdf.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2001b, OECD in Figures: Statistics on the Member Countries (Paris).
Pearce, David, and Kirk Hamilton, 1995, “How the Environment Affects the Macroeconomy,” in Macroeconomics and the Environment, ed. by Ved Gandhi (Washington: International Monetary Fund), pp. 76–94.
Perotti, Roberto, 1999, “Fiscal Policy in Good Times and Bad,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 114 (November), pp. 1399–436.
Peters, David, Kami Kandola, A. Edward Elmendorf, and Gnanaraj Chellaraj, 1999, Health Expenditures, Services, and Outcomes in Africa: Basic Data and Cross-National Comparisons, 1990—1996, Human Development Network; Health, Nutrition, and Population Series (Washington: World Bank).
Pritchett, Lant, and Lawrence Summers, 1996, “Wealthier Is Healthier,” Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 841–68.
Psacharopoulos, George, 1994, “Returns to Investment in Education: A Global Update,” World Development, Vol. 22, (September), pp. 1325–43.
Reinikka-Soininen, Ritva, and Jakob Svensson, 2001, “Explaining Leakage of Public Funds,” Policy Research Working Paper No. 2709 (Washington: World Bank).
Rodrik, Dani, 2000, “Growth Versus Poverty Reduction: A Hollow Debate,” Finance & Development, Vol. 37 (December), pp. 8–9.
Romer, Christina, and David Romer, 1998, “Monetary Policy and the Well-Being of the Poor,” in Income Inequality: Issues and Policy Options (Kansas City: Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City), pp. 159–201.
Shleifer, Andrei, and Robert Vishny, 1993, “Corruption,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 108, No. 3, pp. 599–617.
Tanzi, Vito, and Ludger Schuknecht, 2000, Public Spending in the 20th Century: A Global Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press).
Tanzi, Vito, and Howell Zee, 2000, “Tax Policy for Emerging Markets: Developing Countries,” IMF Working Paper 00/35 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).
Temple, Jonathan, 1999, “The New Growth Evidence,” Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 37 (March), pp. 112–56.
Thomas, Vinod, Mansoor Dailami, Ashok Dhareshwar, Daniel Kaufmann, Nalin Kishor, Ramón López, and Yan Wang, 2000, The Quality of Growth (New York: Oxford University Press).
United Nations, 2002, “Draft Plan of Implementation for the World Summit on Sustainable Development,” Bali, Indonesia (June). This is also available on the web at http://www.johannesburgsummit.org/html/documents/prepcom4docs/bali_documents/draft_plan_1206.pdf
Van Beers, Cees, and André de Moor, 2001, Public Subsidies and Policy Failures: How Subsidies Distort the Natural Environment and Trade, and How to Reform Them (Northampton, Massachusetts: Edward Elgar).
World Bank, 1997, World Development Report: The State in a Changing World (New York: Oxford University Press).
World Bank, 1999, World Development Indicators (Washington).
World Bank, 2001a World Development Report: Attacking Poverty (New York: Oxford University Press).
World Bank, 2001b, World Development Indicators (Washington).
World Bank, 2002, World Development Indicators database (Washington).
World Health Organization, 2001, Macroeconomics and Health: Investing in Health for Economic Development: Report of the Commission on Macroeconomics and Health (Geneva).
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